Chapter 11 STEADY CLOSED-CONDUIT FLOW

1. Chapter 11STEADY CLOSED-CONDUIT FLOW

2. The basic procedures for solving problems in incompressible steady flow in closed conduits are presented before (in Sec. 5.8 and 5.9), where simple pipe-flow situations are discussed, including losses due to change in cross section or direction of flow. • Exponential friction formulas commonly used in commercial and industrial applications are discussed in this chapter. The use of the hydraulic and energy grade lines in solving problems is reiterated before particular applications are developed. • Complex flow problems are investigated, including hydraulic systems that incorporate various different elements such as pumps and piping networks. • The use of the digital computer in analysis and design becomes particularly relevant when multielement systems are being investigated. The hand-held electronic programmable calculator is effective for iterative solutions such as the small-network problems.

3. 11.1 EXPONENTIAL PIPE-FRICTION FORMULAS • Industrial pipe-friction formulas are usually empirical, of the form (11.1.1) • in which hf/L is the head loss per unit length of pipe (slope of the energy grade line), Q the discharge, and D the inside pipe diameter. • The resistance coefficient R is a function of pipe roughness only. An equation with specified exponents and coefficient R is valid only for the fluid viscosity for which it is developed, and it is normally limited to a range of Reynolds numbers and diameters. • In its range of applicability such an equation is convenient, and nomographs are often used to aid problem solution.

4. USC unit SI unit (11.1.2) (11.1.3) • The Hazen-Williams formula for flow of water at ordinary temperatures through pipes is of this form with R given by • with n = 1.852, m = 4.8704, and C dependent upon roughness as follows: R =

5. One can develop a special-purpose formula for a particular application by using the Darcy-Weisbach equation and friction factors from the Moody diagram or, alternatively, by using experimental data if available. • Exponential formulas developed from experimental results are generally very useful and handy in the region over which the data were gathered. Extrapolations and applications to other situations must be carried out with caution. • Fig. 11.1 presents a comparison between the Hazen-Williams equation and the Darcy-Weisbach equation with friction factors from the Moody diagram. It shows equivalent values of f vs. Reynolds number for three typical Hazen-Williams roughness values 70, 100, and 140. The fluid is water at 15°C. • By equating the slope of the hydraulic grade line in the Darcy-Weisbach equation, hf/L = fQ2/2gDA2, to Eq. (11.1.1), solving for f, and introducing the Reynolds number to eliminate Q, (11.1.4)

6. For a given Hazen-Williams coefficient C and diameter D the friction factor reduces with increasing Reynolds number. A similar solution for f in terms of C, Reynolds number, and V can be developed by combining the same equations and eliminating D, (11.1.5) • It may be noted that f is not strongly dependent upon pipe diameter in Eq. (11.1.4). • In Fig. 11.1, at the three selected values of C, Eq. (11.1.4) is shown for a particular diameter of 1 m and Eq. (11.1.5) is shown for a specific velocity of 1 m/s. The shaded region around each of these lines shows the range of practical variation of the variables (0.025 < D < 6 m, 0.030 m/s < V < 30 m/s). • The two formulations Darcy-Weisbach vs. Hazen-Williams for calculation of losses in a pipeline can be seen to be significantly different. • The Darcy-Weisbach equation is probably more rationally based than other empirical exponential formulations and has received wide acceptance.

7. Figure 11.1 Comparison of Hazen-Williams and Darcy-Weisbach equations on the Moody diagram

8. 11.2 HYDRAULIC AND ENERGY GRADE LINES • The concepts of hydraulic and energy grade lines are useful in analyzing more complex flow problems. If, at each point along a pipe system, the term p/γ is determined and plotted as a vertical distance above the center of the pipe, the locus of points is the hydraulic grade line. More generally, the plot of the two terms • as ordinates, against length along the pipe, as abscissas, produces the hydraulic grade line. • The energy grade line is a line joining a series of points marking the available energy in meter-newtons per newton for each point along the pipe as ordinate, plotted against distance along the pipe as the abscissa. It consists of the plot of • for each point along the line.

9. The hydraulic and energy grade lines are shown in Fig. 11.2 for a simple pipeline containing a square-edged entrance, a valve, and a nozzle at the end of the line. • To construct these lines when the reservoir surface is given, it is necessary first to apply the energy equation from the reservoir to the exit, including all minor losses as well as pipe friction, and to solve for the velocity head V2/2g. • Then, to find the elevation of hydraulic grade line at any point, the energy equation is applied from the reservoir to that point, including all losses between the two points. The equation is solved for p/γ + z, which is plotted above the arbitrary datum. • To find the energy grade line at the same point, the equation is solved for V2/2g + p/γ + z, which is plotted above the arbitrary datum. • The reservoir surface is the hydraulic grade line and is also the energy grade line. At the square-edged entrance the energy grade line drops by 0.5V2/2g because or the loss there, and the hydraulic grade line drops 1.5V2/2g.

10. Figure 11.2 Hydraulic and energy grade lines

11. This is made obvious by applying the energy equation between the reservoir surface and a point just downstream from the pipe entrance: • Solving for z + p/γ, • shows the drop of 1.5V2/2g. • The head loss due to the sudden entrance does not actually occur at the entrance itself, but over a distance of 10 or more diameters of pipe downstream. It is customary to show it at the fitting.

12. Example 11.1 • Determine the elevation of hydraulic and energy grade lines at points A, B, C, D, and E of Fig. 11.2. z = 3 m. Solution • Solving for the velocity head is accomplished by applying the energy equation from the reservoir to E, • Form the continuity equation, VE = 4V. After simplifying, • and V2/2g = 0.554 m. Applying the energy equation for the portion from the reservoir to A gives • Hence, the hydraulic grade line at A is

13. The energy grade line for A is • For B, • and • The energy grade line is at 20.40 + 0.55 = 20.95 m. • Across the valve the hydraulic grade line drops by 10V2/2g, or 5.54 m. • Hence, at C the energy and hydraulic grade lines are at 15.41 m and 14.86 m respectively.

14. At point D, • and • with the energy grade line at 12.20 + 0.55 = 12.75 m. • At point E the hydraulic grade line is 3 m, and the energy grade line is

15. The hydraulic gradient is the slope of the hydraulic grade line if the conduit is horizontal; otherwise, it is • The energy gradient is the slope or the energy grade line if the conduit is horizontal; otherwise, it is • In many situations involving long pipelines the minor losses may be neglected (when less than 5 percent of the pipe friction losses), or they may be included as equivalent lengths of pipe which are added to actual length in solving the problem. • For these situations the value of the velocity head V2/2g is small compared with f(L/D)V2/2g and is neglected.

16. In this special but very common case, when minor effects are neglected, the energy and hydraulic grade lines are superposed. The single grade line, shown in Fig. 11.3, is commonly referred to as the hydraulic grade line. • For these situations with long pipelines the hydraulic gradient becomes hf/L, with hf given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation (11.2.1) • or by Eq. (11.1.1). Flow (except through a pump) is always in the direction of decreasing energy grade line. • Pumps add energy to the flow, a fact which may be expressed in the energy equation either by including a negative loss or by stating the energy per unit weight added as a positive term on the upstream side of the equation. • Figure 11.4 shows the hydraulic and energy grade lines for a system with a pump and a siphon. The true slope of the grade lines can be shown only for horizontal lines.

17. Figure 11.3 Hydraulic grade line for long pipeline where minor losses are neglected or included as equivalent lengths of pipe.

18. Figure 11.4 Hydraulic and energy grade lines for a system with pump and siphon

19. Example 11.2 • A pump with a shaft input of 7.5 kW and an efficiency of 70 percent is connected in a water line carrying 0.1 m3/s. The pump has a 150-mm-diameter suction line and 120-mm-diameter discharge line. The suction line enters the pump 1 m below the discharge flange and the rise in the hydraulic grade line across the pump. Solution • If the energy added in meter-newtons per newton is symbolized by E, the fluid power added is • Applying the energy equation from suction flange to discharge flange gives • in which the subscripts s and d refer to the suction and discharge conditions, respectively.

20. From the continuity equation • Solving for pd gives • and pd = 89.6 kN/m2. The rise in hydraulic grade line is • In this example much of energy was added in the form of kinetic energy, and the hydraulic grade line rises only 3.002 m for a rise of energy grade line of 5.354 m.

21. 11.3 THE SIPHON • A closed conduit, arranged as in Fig. 11.5, which lifts the liquid to an elevation higher than its free surface and then discharges it at a lower elevation is a siphon. It has certain limitations in its performance due to the low pressures that occur near the summit s. • Assuming that the siphon flows full, with a continuous liquid column throughout it, the application of the energy equation for the portion from 1 to 2 produces the equation • in which K is the sum of all the minor-loss coefficients. Factoring out the velocity head gives (11.3.1) • which is solved in the same fashion as the simple pipe problems of the first or second type.

22. Figure 11.5 Siphon

23. The pressure at the summit s is found by applying the energy equation for the portion between 1 and s after. Eq. (10.3.1) is solved. It is • in which K‘ is the sum of the minor-loss coefficients between the two points and L’ isthe length of conduit upstream from s. Solving for the pressure gives (11.3.2) • which shows that the pressure is negative and that it decreases with ys, and V2/2g. • If the solution of the equation should be a value of ps/γ equal to or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid, then Eq. (11.3.1) is not valid because the vaporization of portions of the fluid column invalidates the incompressibility assumption used in deriving the energy equation.

24. Although Eq. (11.3.1) is not valid for this case, theoretically there will be a discharge so long as y, plus the vapor pressure is less than local atmospheric pressure expressed in length of the fluid column. • When Eq. (11.3.2) yields a pressure less than vapor pressure at s, the pressure at s may be taken as vapor pressure. Then, with this pressure known, Eq. (11.3.2) is solved for V2/2g, and the discharge is obtained therefrom. It is assumed that air does not enter the siphon at 2 and break at s the vacuum that produces the flow. • Practically, a siphon does not work satisfactorily when the pressure intensity at the summit is close to vapor pressure. Air and other gases come out of solution at the low pressures and collect at the summit, thus reducing the length of the right-hand column of liquid that produces the low pressure at the summit. Large siphons that operate continuously have vacuum pumps to remove the gases at the summits. • The lowest pressure may not occur at the summit but somewhere downstream from that point, because friction and minor losses may reduce the pressure more than the decrease in elevation increases pressure.

25. Example 11.3 • Neglecting minor losses and considering the length of pipe equal to its horizontal distance, determine the point of minimum pressure in the siphon of Fig. 11.6 Solution • When minor losses are neglected, the kinetic-energy term V2/2g is usually neglected also. Then the hydraulic grade line is a straight line connecting the two liquid surfaces. • Coordinates of two points on the line are Figure 11.6 Siphon connecting two reservoirs

26. The equation of the line is, by substitution into y = mx + b, • The minimum pressure occurs where the distance between hydraulic grate line and pipe is a maximum, • To find minimum p/γ, set d(p/γ)/dx = 0, which yields x = 8.28, and p/γ = -5.827 m of fluid flowing. • The minimum point occurs where the slopes of the pipe and of the hydraulic grade line are equal.

27. 11.4 PIPES IN SERIES • When two pipes of different sizes or roughnesses are so connected that fluid flows through one pipe and then through the other, they are said to be connected in series. A typical series-pipe problem, in which the head H may be desired for a given discharge or the discharge wanted for a given H, is illustrated in Fig.11.7. • Applying the energy equation from A to B, including all losses, gives • In which the subscripts refer to the two pipes. The last item is the head loss at exit from pipe 2. With the continuity equation • V2 is eliminated from the equations, so that

28. For known lengths and sizes of pipes this reduces to (11.4.1) • in which C1, C2, C3 are known. • With the discharge given, the Reynolds number is readily computed, and the f's may be looked up in the Moody diagram. Then H is found by direct substitution. With H given, V1, f1, f2, are unknowns in Eq. (11.4.1). • By assuming values of f1 and f2, (they may be assumed equal), a trial V1 is found from which trial Reynolds numbers are determined and values of f1, f2 looked up. • In place of the assumption of f1 and f2 when H is given, a graphical solution may be utilized in which several values of Q are assumed in turn, and the corresponding values of H are calculated and plotted against Q, as in Fig. 11.8. • By connecting the points with a smooth curve, it is easy to read off the proper Q for the given value of H.

29. Figure 11.7 Pipes connected in series Figure 11.8 Plot of calculated H for selected values of Q

30. Example 11.4 • In Fig. 11.7, Ke = 0.5, L1 = 300 m, D1 = 600 mm, є1 = 2 mm, L2 = 240 m, D2 = 1 m, є2 = 0.3 mm, v = 3 × 10-6 m2/s, and H = 6 m. Determine the discharge through the system. Solution • From the energy equation • After simplifying, • Form є1/D1 = 0.0033, є2/D2 = 0.0003, and Fig. 5.21, values of f are assumed for the fully turbulent range:

31. By solving for V1 with these values, V1 = 2.848 m/s, V2 = 1.025 m/s, • From Fig. 5.21, f1 = 0.0265, f2 = 0.0168. By solving again for V1, V1 = 2.819 m/s, and Q = 0.797 m3/s.

32. Equivalent Pipes • Series pipes can be solved by the method of equivalent lengths. Two pipe systems are said to be equivalent when the same head loss produces the same discharge in both systems. From Eq. (11.2.1) • and for a second pipe • For the two pipes to be equivalent, • After equating hf1 = hf2 and simplifying,

33. Solving for L2 gives (11.4.2) • which determines the length of a second pipe to be equivalent to that of the first pipe. • For example, to replace 300 m of 250-mm pipe with an equivalent length of 150-mm pipe, the values of f1 and f2 must be approximated by selecting a discharge within the range intended for the pipes. Say f1 = 0.020, f2 = 0.018, then • For these assumed conditions 25.9 m of 150-mm pipe is equivalent to 300 m of 250-mm pipe. • Hypothetically, two or more pipes composing a system may also be replaced by a pipe which has the same discharge for the same overall head loss.

34. Example 11.5 • Solve Example 11.4 by means of equivalent pipes. Solution • First, by expressing the minor losses in terms of equivalent lengths, for pipe 1 • and for pipe 2 • The values of f1, f2 are selected for the fully turbulent range as an approximation. The problem is now reduced to 321 m of 600-mm pipe and 306.7 m of 1-m pipe.

35. By expressing the 1-m pipe in terms of an equivalent length of 600-mm pipe, by Eq. (11.4.2), • By adding to the 600-mm pipe the problem is reduced to finding the discharge through 334.76 m of 600-mm pipe, є1 = 2 mm, H = 6 m, • With f = 0.026, V = 2.848 m/s, and R = 2.848 × 0.6/(3 × 10-6) = 569600. • For є/D = 0.0033, f = 0.0265, V = 2.821, and Q = π(0.32)(2.821) = 0.798 m3/s. By use of Eq. (5.8.15), Q = 0.781 m3/s.

36. 11.5 PIPES IN PARALLEL • A combination of two or more pipes connected as in Fig. 11.9, so that the flow is divided among the pipes and then is joined again, is a parallel-pipe system. • In analyzing parallel-pipe systems, it is assumed that the minor losses are added into the lengths of each pipe as equivalent lengths. • From Fig. 11.9 the conditions to be satisfied are (11.5.1) • in which zA, zB are elevations of points A and B, and Q is the discharge through the approach pipe or the exit pipe.

37. Figure 11.9 Parallel-pipe system

38. Two types of problems occur: • With elevation of hydraulic grade line at A and B known, to find the discharge Q; • With Q known, to find the distribution of flow and the head loss. • Sizes of pipe, fluid properties, and roughnesses are assumed to be known. • The first type is, in effect, the solution of simple pipe problems for discharge, since the head loss is the drop in hydraulic grade line. • These discharges are added to determine the total discharge.

39. The recommended procedure is as follows: • Assume a discharge Q'1 through pipe 1. • Solve for h’f1, using the assumed discharge. • Using h’f1, find Q‘2, Q‘3. • With the three discharges for a common head loss, now assume that the given Q is split up among the pipes in the same proportion as Q'1, Q‘2, Q‘3; thus (11.5.2) • Check the correctness of these discharges by computing hf1, hf2, hf3 for the computed Q1, Q2, Q3. • This procedure works for any number of pipes. By judicious choice of Q'1, obtained by estimating the percent of the total flow through the system that should pass through pipe 1 (based on diameter, length, and roughness), Eq. (11.5.2) produces values that check within a few percent, which is well within the range of accuracy of the friction factors.

40. Example 11.6 • In Fig. 11.9, L1 = 900 m, D1 = 300 mm, є1 = 0.3 mm, L2 = 600 m, D2 = 200 mm, є2 = 0.03 mm, L3 = 1200 m, D3 = 400 mm, є3 = 0.24 mm, ρ = 1028 kg/m3, v = 2.8 × 10-6 m2/s, pA = 560 kPa, zA = 30 m, zB = 24 m. • For a total flow of 340 L/s, determine flow through each pipe and the pressure at B. Solution • Assume Q’1 = 85 L/s; then V’1 = 1.20, R1 = 1.2 × 0.3/(2.8 × 10-6) = 129000, є1/D1 = 0.001, f’1 = 0.022, and • For pipe 2

41. Then є2/D2 = 0.00015. Assume f’2 = 0.020; then V’2 = 1.26 m/s, R’2 = 1.28 × 0.2 × 1/(2.8 × 10-6) = 91400, f’2 = 0.019, V’2 = 1.291 m/s, Q’2 = 40.6 L/s • Then є3/D3 = 0.0006. Assume f’3 = 0.020; then V’3 = 1.259 m/s, R’3 = 1.259 × 0.4/(2.8 × 10-6) = 180000, f’3 = 0.020, Q’3 = 158.2 L/s. • The total discharge for the assumed condition is • Hence

42. Check the values of h1, h2, h3: • f2 is about midway between 0.018 and 0.019. If 0.018 had been selected, h2 would be 6.60 m. • To find pB, • or • in which the average head loss was taken. Then

43. 11.6 BRANCHING PIPES • A simple branching-pipe system is shown in Fig. 11.11. In this situation the flow through each pipe is wanted when the reservoir elevations are given. The sizes and types of pipes and fluid properties are assumed known. • Flow must be out of the highest reservoir and into the lowest; hence, the continuity equation may be either • If the elevation of hydraulic grade line at the junction is above the elevation of the intermediate reservoir, flow is into it; but if the elevation of hydraulic grade line at J is below the intermediate reservoir, the flow is out of it. Minor losses may be expressed as equivalent lengths and added to the actual lengths of pipe. • The solution is effected by first assuming an elevation of hydraulic grade line at the junction and then computing Q1, Q2, Q3, and substituting into the continuity equation. If the flow into the junction is too great, a higher grade-line elevation, which will reduce the inflow and increase the outflow, is assumed.

44. Figure 11.11 Three interconnected reservoirs

45. In pumping from one reservoir to two or more other reservoirs, as in Fig. 11.12, the characteristics of the pump must be known. Assuming that the pump runs at constant speed, its head depends upon the discharge. A suitable procedure is as follows. • Assume a discharge through the pump. • Compute the hydraulic-grade-line elevation at the suction side of the pump. • From the pump characteristic curve find the head produced and add it to suction hydraulic grade line. • Compute drop in hydraulic grade line to the junction J and determine elevation of hydraulic grade line there. • For this elevation, compute flow into reservoirs 2 and 3. • If flow into J equals flow out of J, the problem is solved. If flow into J is too great, assume less flow through the pump and repeat the procedure. • This procedure is easily plotted on a graph, so that the intersection of two elevations vs. flow curves yields the answer.

46. Figure 11.12 Pumping from one reservoir to two other reservoirs

47. Example 11.7 • In Fig. 11.11, find the discharges for water at 20°C with the following pipe data and reservoir elevations: L1 =3000 m, D1 = 1 m, є1/D1 = 0.0002; L2 = 600 m, D2 = 0.45 m, є2/D2 = 0.002; L3 = 1000 m, D3 = 0.6 m, є3/D3 = 0.001; z1 = 30 m, z2 = 18 m, z3 = 9 m. Solution • Assume zJ + pJ/γ = 23 m. Then • So that the inflow is greater than the outflow by

48. Assume zJ + pJ/γ = 24.6 m. Then • The inflow is still greater by 0.029 m3/s. By extrapolating linearly, zJ + pJ/γ = 24.8 m, Q1 = 1.183, Q2 = 0.325, Q3 = 0.862 m3/s.

49. 11.7 NETWORKS OF PIPES • Interconnected pipes through which the flow to a given outlet may come from several circuits are called a network of pipes, in many ways analogous to flow through electric networks. • The following conditions must be satisfied in a network of pipes: • The algebraic sum of the pressure drops around each circuit must be zero. • Flow into each junction must equal flow out of the junction. • The Darcy-Weisbach equation, or equivalent exponential friction formula, must be satisfied for each pipe; i.e., the proper relation between head loss and discharge must be maintained for each pipe. • The first condition states that the pressure drop between any two points in the circuit, for example, A and G (Fig. 11.15), must be the same whether through the pipe AG or through AFEDG. The second condition is the continuity equation.

50. Figure 11.15 Pipe network