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UNIFEM I Project

UNIFEM I Project. Portrait of Gender, Race and Ethnicity Guatemala Country Report Diana Sawyer (Coordinator) Luana Goveia Ricardo Martini. UNIFEM I Project.

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UNIFEM I Project

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  1. UNIFEM I Project Portrait of Gender, Race and Ethnicity Guatemala Country Report Diana Sawyer (Coordinator) Luana Goveia Ricardo Martini

  2. UNIFEM I Project The Portrait of Gender, Race and Ethnicity in Selected Latin American Countries: a comparative study for Brazil, Bolivia, Guatemala and Paraguay project is the result of a partnership between the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and Cono Sur and the International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth (IPC-IG).

  3. What are the Portraits about? It is a descriptive work depicting the life condition of specific population groups in four Latin American countries defined by ethnicity, sex and urban or rural place of residence.

  4. objectives of the portraits To show the levels of inequality that some groups such as women, indigenous, afro-descendants, and rural population experience in the selected countries; To emphasizes the socio economic differentials among those groups without seeking for an explanation of the disadvantages of one group in relation to the other but to picture the inequalities and to provide inputs for more in-depths studies in further researches focused on gender, race/ethnicity and inequality.

  5. Structure of the portraits Introduction Historical and Population Background; Socio-Economic Indicators: - Composition and Socio-Economic Differentials of the Households (Household Arrangements and Socio Economic Conditions, the Quality of the Houses and the Sanitary Infrastructure, and the Household Durable Goods and Digital Exclusion); - Socio-Economic Differentials of Individuals (Health and Social Security, Education, Labor Market, Domestic Labor, and Poverty and Inequality of Income Distribution); - Appendix 01: Concepts and Definitions; Appendix 02: Methodological Considerations; Appendix 03: List of Tables.

  6. Portraits Project Guatemala Country ReportSource of the socio-economic indicators: ENCOVI 2006. Authors’ calculation.Source of the population background: Censo Nacional de Población y de Habitación. 1950, 1964, 1973, 1981, 1994, 2002, 2006. Authors’ calculation.

  7. History The historical background contextualizes the roots of current inequality in the Guatemalan society as the current lack of economic opportunities and consequently the higher levels of poverty found in the indigenous population have a close link with historical patterns of exclusion in this country.

  8. History The Peace Agreements were signed in December 1996 and represented the end of 36 years of Civil War. More than the end of the war the agreements constituted a turning point in the path of the development in Guatemala as they aimed not only to officially end the armed conflict, but to reverse the country’s historically exclusionary pattern of development. However, all the acknowledgments and achievements about the vulnerable and marginal situation of some social groups as well the high incidence of poverty in the country are not being enough to effectively deal with the problems due to the lack of institutional capacities of the state to fulfill all the provisions of the agreements.

  9. Population The urbanization rate has been increasing since 1950. In the last Census year (2002), the rate was 46% and the estimate for 2006 is 48%; The urban population grew at an average rate of 3.9% in the period 1950 to 2006 and the rural population average growth rate was 2%; The high dependency rate of the indigenous and rural areas residents, 96% and 103% respectively, indicates that there is a lack of indigenous young adults. Those facts point toward a high rate of indigenous adult mortality and outmigration.

  10. Population Sex Ratios (female population/male population) by age group and place of residence - The overall proportion of the female population in 2006 was 52,1%. This proportion was higher at the age group of 15 to 64 years (54.5%); - There is a shortage of the male population from age 15 to 60 years; this shortage occurs both in urban and rural areas. In urban areas the male shortage is seen in all age groups from 15 to 80 years; - The expected pattern is an increasing rate along the age groups. In Guatemala the higher rate in the productive age group is possibly a consequence of the long period of civil war which caused excess male deaths and/or outmigration in the age group. (The sex ratio is defined as the number of females divided by number of males; in case of a balance between them, the ratio will be equal to one) .

  11. Population Population estimates and dependency ratios by sex, ethnic group, place of residence and age groups - The population of Guatemala in 2002 was young, 41% with ages between 0 and 14 years; 54% between 15 and 64; and 5% above 64 years. That age composition reflects directly in dependency rates; - The figures for rural areas residents clearly indicate the reduced size of the population in economically productive ages vis a vis the high proportion of children predominantly in the rural places, possibly due to the higher mortality of the young adults combined with outmigration. Sex, ethnic and place of residence composition by age group

  12. The population pyramids are typical of a population with high natality and high mortality in the past with no evidence of substantive decline of the fertility; • There is a clear shortage of men older than 15 years, especially in the productive age group of 15 to 64 years old; - The pattern does not differ for urban and rural population, although the high natality and the shortage of adult males are more accentuated in the rural area. Population Population composition by age and sex and place of residence. Total Population Rural Residence Urban Residence

  13. Population Sex Ratio by 5 year age groups and ethnic group The sex ration by age group confirms for both indigenous and non-indigenous population the shortage of male population; - For the indigenous population the shortage is clearly at the economically productive age and for the non-indigenous population it extends to the older ages.

  14. Population Population by ethnic group and place of residence 38.4% of the population self-identified as indigenous; Historically, there is a considerable loss on representativeness of the indigenous population in Guatemala; - Regarding the spatial distribution rural areas are considered as the indigenous population’s place of residence: 67% of the indigenous population lived in rural area, whereas 42% of the non-indigenous did so; - The ethnic composition of urban and rural areas was 74% and 50% of non-indigenous respectively.

  15. Population Indigenous Population - The population pyramids for indigenous and non-indigenous people are quite similar; - The pattern of sex and age distribution for the non-indigenous and indigenous population has a typical configuration of high past mortality and fertility rates; - The indigenous population pattern indicates high mortality and fertility with no indication of a substantial decline in the latter; - High adult mortality and possibly combined with outmigration are reasonable hypothesis. Non-indigenous Population

  16. Population Total Fertility Rates and Child Mortality Rates (probability of death from birth to the age five) by ethnic group The total fertility rate for Guatemala was 3.4 children per woman. The non-indigenous women fertility was estimated at 3.0 and at 4.6 for indigenous women, which means 53% higher fertility the indigenous; - The probability of death from birth to the age of five years for indigenous children was estimated at 71 deaths per 1000 live births, which corresponded to a rate 55% higher than for the non-indigenous estimate of 46. The overall rate for both groups was 57. (Total fertility rate can be interpreted as the number of children a woman will have at the end of the reproductive age, under the assumption of no woman mortality in the period).

  17. socio-economic indicators: households Type of household by sex of the head, ethnic group of the head and location of the household - The number of estimated households in 2006 was of 2,651,249 of them 77.4% was headed by a male, 64.5% by non indigenous and 53.7% were located in urban areas. - 63.6% of the households were composed by a couple with children headed by a male (the most prevalent arrangement), followed by households headed by a female with children and without a husband (17,4%); - The tendency was to have higher number of households headed by non indigenous and located in urban areas. a) Composition of the households

  18. socio-economic indicators: households Average year of schooling by household head's sex, ethnic group, place of residence and household type The average years of schooling attained by the heads of the households were of 4.58 years; The most educated was the male, non indigenous who lived in urban areas with the wife and children (8.05 years) whereas the least educated head was the single, indigenous female with children who lived in rural areas (0.0); The general tendency was a higher education for heads of households located in urban areas as compared to their counterparts of the rural areas The non indigenous heads were more educated than their correspondent indigenous and the same pattern for the males head of the households. a) Composition of the households

  19. socio-economic indicators: households Adjusted probabilities of years of schooling of the head of the household by sex, ethnic group and place of residence - To assess the overall pattern of the level of education, the probabilities of the years of schooling of the household heads were adjusted by means of an ordinal logit model with the family arrangements, head’s sex, ethnic group and the place of the household as independent variables; - The baseline group is composed by households headed by a non indigenous male with 17 years of more of schooling located in the urban area; - Up to the level of 3 years of schooling those households headed by females, indigenous and located in rural areas were higher than the baseline curve e.g. the probability that a head had no year of schooling was about 80% higher than a household in the baseline. From that level on, the probability of those households are always below the baseline. As for the household arrangements there is no much difference in the probabilities of years of schooling among the arrangements. Adjusted probabilities of years of schooling of the head of the household by type of arrangements a) Composition of the households

  20. socio-economic indicators: households Average annual per capita income (in GTQ) by sex and ethnic group of the head and location of the household The higher the level of the income the higher is the inequality between female and male heads, between indigenous and non indigenous head and between rural and urban areas of location. a) Composition of the households

  21. socio-economic indicators: households The average annual per capita income of the Guatemalan households was of 13,086 GTQ; Male or non-indigenous headed household had higher income than female or indigenous household, so did the households located in urban areas; The highest average income is for households located in urban areas headed by a female non indigenous who lived with husband and no children (GTQ 52,030.00) .The lowest was for those households from rural areas headed by a female indigenous who lived with husband and no children (GTQ 1,068.00). a) Composition of the households

  22. socio-economic indicators: households The influence of head of the household sex and ethnic group, place of residence and household arrangements on Quartiles of the annual per capita income - To identify how the household head’s sex, ethnic group, place of residence and household arrangements affects different levels on income, a multiple quartile regression was performed to adjust the data; - Households with female indigenous heads and rural always have a negative participation in all the quartiles of the conditional per capita income distribution; - The higher the level of the income the higher is the inequality between female and male heads, between indigenous and non indigenous head and between rural and urban areas of location. a) Composition of the households

  23. socio-economic indicators: households The difference between the 1st and 3rd quantile regression’s coefficient by head of the household sex, ethnicity, location and arrangements of the household The differences of the coefficients of 1st quartile to the 3rd quartile are all significant and negative in accordance to the hypothesis of increasing inequality by gender and ethnic group. a) Composition of the households

  24. socio-economic indicators: households Proportion of poor households (annual per capita income less than GTQ 6,574.00) by household arrangement and location by head’s sex and ethnic group The proportion of poor households was of 47% with a wide range among the groups under study. This proportion was higher for those located in rural areas (69%), and for those headed by indigenous (70%); - There was no clear pattern across the household arrangements nor there was by the sex of the head. a) Composition of the households - The poverty line adopted in this monograph was of GTQ 6,574.00. This value corresponds to the line estimated by the World Bank using the 2000 and 2006 ENCOVI with consumption data.

  25. socio-economic indicators: households Ratio of rates of poverty between explanatory variables and baseline (household arrangement and location; head’s sex and ethnic group). - To better understand the role of the sex of the head in the number of poor households, data were modeled by a Poisson Regression Model; - After controlling for other variables in the model, it was possible to discern the effect of the sex of the head in the proportion of poor households. The proportion of poor households when headed by women was 17% higher than those headed by men, when headed by indigenous the correspondent effect was of 69%; - The higher effect was from the rural location of the household, in those, the proportion of poor households was 115% higher than those in urban areas. a) Composition of the households

  26. socio-economic indicators: households - The water supply of a residence is considered adequate if there is an inside or outside plumbing, a public water fountain or an artesian well. - As expected the proportion of adequate water is lower for poor families than for non-poor, the same pattern holds across categories of sex and ethnic group of the head, and for the location of the households. - The differential over the head of the household’s sex is less perceptible. Proportion of households with adequate water supply by state of poverty, head of the household sex and ethnic group and location of residence B) The Quality of the Houses and the Sanitary Infrastructure

  27. socio-economic indicators: households The proportion of households with adequate water supply is 89%; with adequate sanitation is 47%; adequate garbage disposal is 35%; and 15% with more than five people sleeping in the same bedroom; After combining those five components with the index of adequacy of the house construction material (floor, wall and roof) in one housing quality index, 27% of the households are considered adequate; and 15.5% are considered of bad quality and inadequate. B) The Quality of the Houses and the Sanitary Infrastructure (In order to assess the quality of the houses, an index was calculated using information on adequacy of the sanitary (water source, sanitation, garbage disposal) infrastructure, of the house building material (roof, wall and floor) and of crowdness (person/bedroom) ). The index is in the Report.

  28. socio-economic indicators: households Proportion of households with adequate sanitation by state of poverty, head of the household sex and ethnic group and location of residence - A house is considered with adequate sanitation if it is non-odor and is connected to a drainage system or a patent concrete cesspit; - There is a high differential in that proportion between urban and rural area, the pattern holds across head of the household’s ethnic and sex group and state of poverty; - The rate of adequacy is higher for households headed by non-indigenous than for those headed by indigenous person. The household headed by women had a better rate of adequacy . B) The Quality of the Houses and the Sanitary Infrastructure

  29. socio-economic indicators: households Proportion of households with adequate garbage disposal by state of poverty, head of the household sex and ethnic group and location of residence - Only 35% of Guatemalan households have access to public or private garbage disposal systems; - The lowest rate of adequacy was for the poor household, located in rural area and headed by indigenous men and the highest was for the non-poor, urban, non-indigenous and female heads. B) The Quality of the Houses and the Sanitary Infrastructure

  30. socio-economic indicators: households In order to assess the quality of the houses, an index was calculated using information on adequacy of the sanitary infrastructure (water source, sanitation, garbage disposal), the house building material (roof, wall and floor) and of crowdness (person/bedroom). The adequacy of the house materials were set according to their potential of providing shelter and closure. The construction of the Index of Housing Quality (IHQ) followed 4 steps: • Classifying the variables according to adequacy and crowdness; • 2) Categorizing the households according to: i. adequate; ii. one inadequate, iii. two inadequate and iv. all inadequate, for sanitary infrastructure and house construction material; • 3) Classification of the households according to the combination of the infrastructure and material; • 4) Refining the classification by a combination of 3) with crowdness. B) The Quality of the Houses and the Sanitary Infrastructure

  31. socio-economic indicators: households External wall material Adequate: block, adobe, wood, metallic foil, brick, concrete Inadequate: wattle and daub, stick, pole, other Roof material Adequate: tile, asbestos, cement, Inadequate: thatch or palm leaves, other Floor material Adequate: cement, cement brick, ceramic brick, mud brick, wood, parquet Inadequate: earth, other. Criteria for household classification according to the level of adequacy of the sanitary infrastructure and house construction material Criteria for household classification according to the categories of the House Quality Index B) The Quality of the Houses and the Sanitary Infrastructure

  32. socio-economic indicators: households - Distribution of the Guatemalan houses by the indicator of their quality: Distribution of the houses by the indicator of their quality - To better assess the differentials regarding the quality of the house among households, a multinomial logit regression was adjusted to a model with dependent variable as the house quality categories and independent variables as: the type of household arrangements, head of the household by sex and ethnicity and location of the house. - The model considered the regular quality of the house as the base. B) The Quality of the Houses and the Sanitary Infrastructure

  33. socio-economic indicators: households Relative Risk Ratio (RRR), standard error, t and p value and 95% confidence interval of the RRR, adjusted by a multinomial logit regression. - The correspondent relative risk of having an adequate house instead of a regular house is higher for female heads, non-indigenous heads and houses located in urban areas; - The differentials for the type of households did not show statistical significance; - The relative risks of non-adequate houses as compared to the regular houses was higher for households headed by indigenous than non-indigenous; higher for households located in the rural areas than those in the urban areas; - The quality of the houses was not statistically different by sex of the head of the household; - Those households composed by the head, partner and children and those composed by head and children (no partner) had higher risk of having houses of inadequate quality. B) The Quality of the Houses and the Sanitary Infrastructure

  34. socio-economic indicators: households - In decreasing order, durable goods more present in households are television (69%), stove (57%), fridge or freezer (39%), telephone (19%, with a higher prevalence of cell phones - 55%), and washing machine (9%). Beyond been the most common durable good in country households, television have the lowest differentials of ownership by ethnicity and area of placing of the home; The ownership of stove and telephone present the highest differentials between rural and urban households; The ownership of refrigerator presents the highest differentials between the ethnicity of the household’s head. c) Household Durable Goods and Digital Exclusion

  35. socio-economic indicators: households Proportion (by 100) of households with number of durable goods owned by the location of the household, sex and ethnic group of the head There are clearly three distinctive patterns: 1) hyperbolic pattern - a concentration of households at the lower end of the curve and dropping very fast as the number of durable goods increase. This is the case for rural indigenous headed households, 50-60% have zero goods and no more than 10% hold two or more goods; 2) parabolic pattern – a low proportion of households at lower end of the curve, increasing rapidly to a maximum and then decreasing slowly towards the higher end. The urban non-indigenous-headed households, present this patterns, with maximum in three goods; 3) Linear pattern. There is a high proportion of households in the lower end of the distribution and the curve decline monotonically as the number of goods increase. This is the case of urban indigenous and rural non-indigenous. c) Household Durable Goods and Digital Exclusion

  36. socio-economic indicators: households Proportion of households (by 100) who own computer, internet and cell phone by location of the household, sex and ethnic group of the head - Digital exclusion is very high: Only 11% of the households possess computer and 2% have access to Internet; - Computer and Internet access is more common in urban non-indigenous-headed households; - Access to Internet in rural and indigenous-headed households is null. In countryside, it can be related to low telecommunications infra-structure; - In the other hand, the ownership of cellular telephone is much more common between households of every social group, especially between urban non-indigenous headed homes. So, it can be concluded that in Guatemala most families receive their information via television and communicate mainly using cell phones. c) Household Durable Goods and Digital Exclusion

  37. socio-economic indicators: individuals Only 50% of children receive all vaccines (BCG, Antipolio, DPT , Sarampiom and Measles), available before 2005. That exclusion was higher for rural and urban indigenous children, especially girls; - 97% of the children were vaccinated with at least one of those vaccines; - The coverage of the four vaccines was higher for those living in urban areas, non-indigenous and males. D) Health and social security

  38. socio-economic indicators: individuals Proportion of women (by 100) in the age of 15 to 49 years who had Papanicolau Test, by the period of the test, ethnicity and place of residence Most Guatemalan women have never done the Papanicolaou Exam, and no more than 18% did it last year. Exclusion is higher between indigenous women, even higher than for rural inhabitants (where health services supply is lower); In life just 36% of women aged 15 to 49 did the Papanicolaou. The women residing in urban areas and the non-indigenous had higher prevalence. D) Health and social security

  39. socio-economic indicators: individuals Total Population with Health Insurance D) Health and social security - Most of Guatemalan population (85%) do not have any access to any kind of health insurance;

  40. socio-economic indicators: individuals Disaggregated Population with Health Insurance D) Health and social security - Exclusion is higher for rural areas than for urban ones as well as for women and indigenous than for men and non-indigenous; - Private health insurance coverage between rural people and over all indigenous is basically null. In the case of indigenous people living in urban places they are more covered with health insurance than the rural ones.

  41. socio-economic indicators: individuals Health Expenditure Annually D) Health and social security • - Annual medical and health expenditures are higher for urban population, women and non-indigenous, with the highest rate for women non-indigenous urban; • The health expenditures of women non-indigenous urban were higher (10%) than those for any other group, especially indigenous female headed household in urban areas (5%); • The total health expenditure of the households had an average of 8% of the total household income;

  42. socio-economic indicators: individuals The population aged 60 years or more who receive retirement pension was 13%; The highest figure was for men non-indigenous living urban areas (30%) and the lowest for women indigenous living in the rural areas (1%); - There is a clear picture of very low coverage of social security in the country. D) Health and social security

  43. socio-economic indicators: individuals Average Years of Schooling Attended by Age Group, Sex, Ethnicity and Place of Residence - The gaps in the access to education is higher in terms of rural/urban (with lower access to rural areas) than in terms of ethnicity (non-indigenous with the better figures). Gender presents the lower inequality and normally men present the better figures; - For lower age groups the difference diminishes and years of schooling increase, especially below the age of 15 years, which shows a recent raise in the access to basic education for all in this country. D) education

  44. socio-economic indicators: individuals Enrollment Rates of Population Sub Groups- Differentiated by Sex, Ethnicity, and Place of Residence, from Pre-School to Higher Education - The majority of population is currently attending Primary Education, Irrespective of gender, ethnicity, or place of residence, which shows the tendency to the universalization of basic education; Just the minority of population is currently attending Higher Education. This is the level of education that presents the higher inequality in the access besides being the one in which there is more inequality among the groups of population; Secondary Education is the level that presents the higher inequality in the access among the categories of the population. D) education

  45. socio-economic indicators: individuals Illiteracy Rates in Population Aged 10 or Older, Differentiated by Age Group, Sex, Ethnicity and Place of Residence • The greatest inequalities in the illiteracy rates are in terms of ethnicity and place of residencewith the indigenous and rural population experiencing the highest rates; The highest illiteracy rate is found among women indigenous living in rural areas with 60 years or over (95.3% of illiteracy). Among the younger generation illiteracy is lower; The variation in the illiteracy rate is directly proportional to the age: younger one is, more access to education she or he has with less difference in relation to sex, ethnicity and place of residence. D) education

  46. socio-economic indicators: individuals Enrollment Ratio in Primary and Secondary Education by Sex, Ethnicity and Place of Residence Age-grade Distortion in Primary and Secondary Education by Sex, Ethnicity and Place of Residence The high levels of age grade distortions and the low levels of enrollment ratios for primary and secondary education, the latter in particular, can show a great instability in the path through these levels of education and a progressive school evasion. - Enrollment Ratio in primary and secondary education corresponds to all persons enrolled in these levels of schooling to the total population of the age group that national regulation in Guatemala dictates should be enrolled at those levels; - Age-grade distortion means children over-aged (two years or more) for attending respective schooling grade (as defined by the national education system) to the total enrolled children in the respective grade; D) education

  47. socio-economic indicators: individuals Economic Active Population Age 16 Years or Older by Sex, Ethnicity and Place of Residence - The EAP corresponds to half of the population. The major inequality is in relation to gender and there is a prevalence of men; - Place of residence and gender are more determinants than ethnicity in the EAP rate with the prevalence of urban and male population. E) Labor market

  48. socio-economic indicators: individuals Unemployed Population Age 16 or Older by Sex, Ethnicity and Place of Residence - The overall unemployment rate is low. This is due to the high incidence of informal jobs; - The incidence of unemployment is higher in urban areas and for non-indigenous than in rural areas and for indigenous. E) Labor market

  49. socio-economic indicators: individuals Distribution of Population by Employment Position and Place of Residence - The majority of the population is employee and self-employed. This figure has a close link with the high informality of the occupations found in the economy of the country; - Women, especially those from rural areas, present the highest participation in the “others” activities, which shows women in a central role within uncategorized job positions. E) Labor market

  50. socio-economic indicators: individuals Distribution of Population by Employment Sector and Place of Residence - The majority of population is concentrated in the commercial and agricultural sectors; - The “other” sector of the economy concentrates a great amount of the working population. This sector reinforces the informal pace of the economy; Women, especially those from urban areas, present the highest participation in the “other” sector, which shows women in a central role within uncategorized sector of jobs. E) Labor market

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