Water Quality and Testing

1. Water Quality and Testing Cowardice asks the question: is it safe? Expediency asks the question: is it political? Vanity asks the question: is it popular? But conscience asks the question: is it right? And… There comes a time when one must take a position that is neither safe, nor political, nor popular – but one must take it simply because it is right. — Martin Luther King, Jr.

2. Water Quality and Testing • Water quality is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water. • No single test or simple property can tell whether water is polluted or not. Water Quality Index • The Water Quality Index (WQI) was developed in the early 1970s as a standard means of using one number to represent nine criteria for calculating the degree of water quality for a given body of water.

3. Water Quality & Testing • The vast majority of surface water on the planet is neither potable (fit for drinking) nor toxic (poisonous) – essentially, not good or bad • Approximately ___% of the world’s population has no access to potable water 25

4. Sources of Water Pollution • Industrial discharge of chemical wastes and byproducts • Discharge of poorly-treated or untreated sewage • Surface runoff containing pesticides or fertilizers • Deforestation: “slash and burn” farming practice, which is often done to clear land for agriculture – contributing to erosion and run-off • Surface runoff containing spilled petroleum products • Surface runoff from construction sites, farms, or paved and other impervious surfaces • Discharge of contaminated and/or heated water used for industrial processes • Acid rain caused by industrial discharge of sulfur dioxide (by burning high-sulfur fossil fuels) • Eutrophication by runoff containing detergents or fertilizers • Underground storage tank leakage, leading to soil contamination, and hence aquifer contamination • Inappropriate disposal of various solid wastes and, on a localized scale, littering • Oil spills Will be in notes for Chapter 14

5. Categories of Water Tests Chemical • Dissolved Oxygen(DO) • pH • Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) • Chemical oxygen demand (COD) • Nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus • Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, Mercury (element),arsenic, etc.) • Pesticides • Heavy Metals • Pharmaceuticals • Hormone analogs Physical • Temperature • Turbidity (clarity) • Color, Taste and Odor • Electrical Conductivity (salinity / TDS: Total Dissolved Solids) • Total suspended solids (TSS) • Nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus • Dissolved salts and elements (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium) Biological • Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia • Dissolved organics: Colored Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM), Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) BethicMacroinvertebrates: • Mollusca (Snails) • Ephemeropteroidea (Mayfly) • Plecoptera (Stonefly) • Trichoptera (Caddisfly) Just note the ones in yellow

6. Salinity Dissolved Oxygen(DO) pH Color of water Turbidity Total suspended solids (TSS) Dissolved metals and salts Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Nutrients Dissolved metals Temperature Pesticides Heavy Metals Pharmaceuticals Hormone analogs Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia Dissolved organics: Colored Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM), Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) Number of species Biotic vs. Abiotic • Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment. • The six major abiotic factors are water, sunlight, oxygen, temperature, soil and climate. • Biotic means relating to, produced by, or caused by living organisms.

7. Water TestingAnalyze a water testing device with a partner and prepare to share the following with the class: • Describe: Tools/Technique for detecting and measuring your substance • Analyze: Units of measurement • Causes: What causes the level to change? • Effects: How are people/ecosystems effected? • (Optional) Solutions: How can it be “treated”?

8. Temperature • Tools: Liquid and/or Digital thermometer • Units: °F or °C (which is more scientific?) • Causes: ThermalPollution(increased water temperature) • from factories & power plants that use water for cooling • also due to removing trees along riparian habitat that would have provided shade to cool streams and ponds. • Affects how much oxygen water can hold and determines types of organisms that can survive • Warm water holds less oxygen / decreases oxygen supply • Warmer water increases the metabolic rate of aquatic organisms, which increases the consumption of food and dissolved oxygen. • Killing fish - juveniles are more vulnerable to small increases in temperature

9. pHPotential of Hydrogen Tools: Litmus paper, pH drops or electronic/digital probes Units: 7.0 is neutral on scale of 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic/alkaline) Causes: Pollution,Acid rain, battery acid, chemical plants. Effects: ocean acidification and more… At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. Some acidic lakes have no fish. Even if a species of fish or animal can tolerate moderately acidic water, the animals or plants it eats might not. For example, frogs have a critical pH around 4, but the mayflies they eat are more sensitive and may not survive pH below 5.5. https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects-acid-rain

10. TDSTotal Dissolved Solids(Salinity) Oceans are about 35 ppt Test: ElectricalConductivity probe Units: Concentration: ppm Saturation: mg/L Causes: • Some areas were previously under the ocean where water evaporated, leaving salt behind. • Erosion (increased by clear-cut logging) transports salt into watershed and out to the ocean. • Salts used on roads to melt ice in winter, urban runoff through storm sewers, farm chemicals, etc. Effects: • Determines which organisms can live in an area - may cause native vegetation to die off. • Leads to a decline in biodiversity through dominance of salt-resistant species. • Reduces agricultural crop production. Mitigation: Managing salinity involves balancing the volume of water entering the groundwater system (recharge) and the volume of water leaving it (discharge). When deep-rooted native plants are removed or replaced with shallow-rooted plants, they require more frequent watering which may draw salt from under the soil.

11. Turbidity / TSS(Total Suspended Solids) • Measure of how clear or murky the water is based on amount of particulate matter (sediment, solids, phytoplankton, nutrients, etc.) is suspended in water. • Tools: Electronic test kit (transmitting a light) or Secchi disk • Measure:Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU) or Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) • Causes: sediment (from erosion), algae, urban runoff/pollution • Effects: absorb and block sunlight which reduces photosynthesis for aquatic plants. (lowers Dissolved Oxygen – next slide) Darkened water holds more heat, increasing the water temperature which in turn lowers the DO.

12. Dissolved Oxygen Tools: Tests can be done with an electronic dissolved oxygen meter or using chemicals reactions in the Azide-Winkler titration method. Measurement: mg/L Causes: + Oxygen enters the water by absorption directly from the atmosphere or by photosynthesis from aquatic plants and algae. - Oxygen is removed from the water by respiration and decomposition of organic matter. + Water gains oxygen from waves or as it flows over rocks and creates riffles. -When water moves slower or becomes stagnant, it may cause DO to decrease.  + During rainy seasons, oxygen concentrations tend to be higher because the rain interacts with oxygen in the air as it falls. Effects:   More DO generally relates to “healthier” water (oxygen is necessary for most aquatic species to breath) – as opposed to Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): next slide…

13. Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) Tools: (Essentially, the same test at Dissolved Oxygen.) Measurement: mg/L Cause: Affected by how fast biological organisms use up oxygen in a body of water. The BOD test gives an approximation of the level of biodegradable waste there is in the water (leaves and branches, animal waste and manure from agriculture, wood pulp from paper mills, etc.). When the organic material in dead aquatic plants is decomposed, it releases the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorous. These nutrients trigger more plant growth and more nutrients, which further lower oxygen levels. “Aerobic” bacteria in water eat organic matter while also removing oxygen. Effects: The oxygen levels can drop below what is necessary for other aquatic life forms. Water with a high BOD (sudden drop in D.O.) usually indicates a high bacteria count which can spread disease and become hazardous to humans.

14. Nutrients • Eutrophication, strictly speaking, means an increase in chemical nutrients (primarily nitrogen and phosphorus) • Causes an increase in primary productivity • excessive plant growth and decay • Further impacts, including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality and in fish and other animal populations.

15. (Phosphorous) Phosphates Test:Colorimetric procedures and ascorbic acid treatment Units: mg/L Causes: • Erosion of exposed rock containing phosphorous • Agricultural fertilizer, sewage and laundry detergents Effects: • Promotes algae growth which deprives oxygen from other aquatic organisms. Mitigation: • Can be treated with calcium or aluminum and iron to lower phosphorous levels

16. Ammonia Causes • Ammonia toxicity increases as temperature rises. • In aquariums, ammonia level rises due to different reasons: • Overfeeding, insufficient filtration, or dead fish decomposing in the tank. Effects of ammonia on people: • If inhaled can cause burning of nose, throat and respiratory failure. • If swallowed can result in damaged mouth, throat and stomach • Skin and eye irritation and burns Treatments: • Immediately wash with copious water • Drink milk or water to dilute ingested ammonia Tools for Measuring: • Ammonia test strips (pH indicators) • Ammonia activator drops How to Measure: • Pour water into tube and place ammonia activator drops in and compare the color to the chart.

17. Nitrogen: Ammonia NH3 Nitrite NO2 Nitrate NO3 • Test: Chemical or Nitrate Electrode Method • Units: mg/L (or millivolts converted to mg/L) • Causes: • Nitrates can get into the water from natural processes in the nitrogen cycle. • Most excessive amounts of nitrates come from human-based activities such as runoff from fertilized land, animal wastes from feedlots, and treated municipal waste effluent (defective septic and sewage treatment systems). • Nitrates also get reduced to nitrites, which can be harmful to humans and fish. • Effects: • Eutrophication (excessive nutrient levels) in standing bodies of water. • Cause of the dead zones in the Gulf of Mexico and other river outlets.

18. Fecal Coliform Cause: • Coliforms are a form of bacteria that are found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals; their presence in lakes, streams, and rivers is a sign of untreated human sewage or from farms and runoff from animal feed lots. Effects: • While fecal coliforms themselves are not harmful to humans, their measures indicate the presence of harmful pathogens (see micro-organisms on next slide) • Tests: • Petri (culture) dish, • Fermentation, Membrane filter, • Chemical litmus test • Units: counting colonies in petri dish or compare color

19. Microorganisms (pathogen bacteria) • E. colican generally cause several intestinal and extra-intestinal infections • Cryptosporidiumis a protozoan pathogen and causes a diarrheal illness called cryptosporidiosis • Giardia lambliais a flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing giardiasis. Symptoms of include diarrhea, malaise, excessive gas, etc. • Some ways to get rid of these harmful substances is to boil water will kill all life within the water, carbon filters get rid of the bacteria though filtering, another way is to use a sand filter or evaporation method.

20. Pesticidesbactericides, fungicides herbicides, insecticides (DDT) Tools/Techniques- Regular tests are done to ensure public safety. For testing use a water testing kit or if you have a private well use private laboratories. Measurement: The reporting limits for the HPAA method are 0.2 micrograms per liter (ug/L), while reporting limits for the LCAA method are 0.05 ug/L. Cause : Pesticides not taken up by plants, adsorbed by soils or broken down by sunlight, soil organisms or chemical reactions may ultimately reach groundwater sources of drinking water. Effects: Pesticides can cause cancer, organ damage in animals. In humans pesticides can cause damage to the nervous system, cause cancer, and birth defects. Solutions: Use an activated carbon filter. Water is filtered through carbon granules that trap contaminants.

21. Where does mercury come from? • Mercury occurs in the environment naturally, though it increases with erosion of rocks. • Mercury can evaporate to form an odorless, colorless, vapor. Mercury was used for thermometers, but can be found in fluorescent light bulbs. • This heavy metal is toxic even at low concentrations to organisms and humans - the cause of several major epidemics of poisoning in humans resulting from the ingestion of contaminated food, e.g. fish • Where does lead come from? • Lead is a natural element which is widely distributed in soils, rocks and in rivers and the sea. But in nature lead usually exist combined with other chemical elements in the form of lead compounds. • Lead poisoning is one of the most prevalent public health problems in many parts of the world. It was the first metal to be linked with failures in reproduction. It can cross the placenta easily. It also affects the brain, causing hyperactivity and deficiency in the fine motor functions, thus, it results in damage to the brain. Dissolved Metals Many dissolved metals have been found in harmful concentrations in groundwater destined for potable drinking water due to both naturally occurring contamination as well as contamination introduced from industrial pollution. Examples- mercury, and lead, Cadium Ways to stop Mercury and lead pollution. Hazardous Wastes Management. Reducing products containing lead or mercury. Call the EPA to reduce the level of lead pollution, removed lead contents from gasoline, and check older buildings for lead.

22. Pharmaceuticals • Pharmaceuticals are chemicals found in prescription, over-the-counter, and veterinary drugs. • Describe: The method used to test for pharmaceuticals combines solid-phase extraction with high-performance liquid chromatography. • Analyze: Measured in nanograms per liter; usually present in much lower amounts than the acceptable medical dose • Causes: Pharmaceuticals are introduced to the water supply through the sewage of individuals who took these drugs, improper drug disposal, poorly controlled manufacturing facilities, and agricultural runoff. • Effects: Since the pharmaceuticals are present in such small amounts, there are usually no negative effects to human health. However, scientists are beginning to worry about the long-term consequences of these chemicals in drinking water. • Solutions: Natural processes (adsorption into sediment, solar photodegradation and biological degradation); proper household drug disposal; wastewater treatment