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DATA COLLECTION METHODS. Presented by Beena Benita D'Souza. Data are facts which are observable and measurable phenomena. The purpose of gathering and summarizing the data is to transform them into information in order to a) identify variables/facts b) measure variables
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DATA COLLECTION METHODS Presented by Beena Benita D'Souza
Data are facts which are observable and measurable phenomena. The purpose of gathering and summarizing the data is to transform them into information in order to a) identify variables/facts b) measure variables c) describe behaviour and d) obtain empirical evidence which is objective, reliable and valid
TYPES OF DATA 1. Primary data 2. Secondary data • Primary data are those which are gathered afresh and for the first time and thus happen to be original in character. • Secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. Here, the nature of data collection is compilation.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS • Observation method Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. • Under this method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent.
1. Structured observation: refers to the observation characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and selection of pertinent data of observation. • 2.Unstructured observation: the observation takes place without the above characteristics to be thought of in advance.
3. Participant observation: when the observer observes by making himself more or less a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the member of the group experience. • 4. Non participant observation: When the observer observes as detached emissary without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel.
5. Disguised observation: observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he is observing such an observation • 6. Uncontrolled observation: observation takes place in natural setting • 7. Controlled observation: observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedures
The four broad questions to focus in observation method are • 1. what should be observed? • 2. how should observation be recorded? • 3. what procedures should be used to assure the accuracy of observation? • 4. what relation should exist between observer and the observed?
Phenomena that can be observed are • Characteristics and condition of individuals such as physiological conditions • Verbal communication/ behaviour, such as linguistic behaviour • Non verbal communication/behaviour- facial expression, touch, posture, body movements • Activities- for example actions that serve as an index of health status, performance activity of nurses, performance of procedure • Environmental characteristics such as noise levels, cleanliness that have profound effect on health or individual’s behaviour.
Instruments used for observation: • Unstructured instruments like logs, field notes, anecdotes. • A log is a record of events and conversations and usually is maintained on a daily basis by field worker. • Field notes includes daily log but tend to be much broader, more analytic and consists of more interpretation than more listing of occurrences. • Anecdotes- focus on behaviour of particular interest, typically select specific kind of events and behaviours for observation before hand. The observer objectively and accurately records the observation.
Structured instruments • Check lists- is a tool used for structured observation where phenomena are recorded by putting a tally against a particular behaviour, event or characteristic depending upon its presence or absence. • Rating scales- structured observation can also be rated in terms of qualitative points along a descriptive continuum. The rating usually are quantified during the analysis of the observation data.
Interview method The interview is an instrument designed by the investigator to obtain verbal responses in either a face to face or telephone situation between an interviewer and the respondent Types of interview • Personal interview: This method requires a person known as interviewer asking questions generally in face to face contact to other person or persons.
Interviews can be structured, unstructured, focused, clinical and non-directive. • Structured interviews: involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of recording and follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed. • Unstructured interviews: are characterized by flexibility of approach to questioning. This does not follow a system of predetermined questions and standard technique of recording information.
Focused interview: is meant to focus attention on the give experience of the respondent and its effects. Under this the interviewer has the freedom to decide the number and sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives.
Clinical interview: is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience. • Non-directive interview: in this the interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the comprehensive expression of the respondents feelings and beliefs.
Pre-requisites and basic talents of interviewing: • Interviewer should be carefully selected, trained and briefed. • They should be honest, sincere and hard working. • Effort should be made to create atmosphere of trust and confidence. • Questions should be asked properly and record responses accurately and completely. • Questions asked to the respondent must be answered and should clear their doubts. • Interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of respondent’s answer.
Telephone interviews:this method consists of contacting respondents on telephone. • More flexible in comparison to mailing method. • Faster than other methods. • Cheaper than personal interview.
Questionnaire method: • In this method a questionnaire is sent to the persons concerned with a request to answer questions and return the questionnaire. • Questionnaire are self administered in written form by the subjects. • A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. • The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. • The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
Types of questionnaires: • Structured questionnaires: are those questions in which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly in the same wording and in the same order to the respondents. • Unstructured questionnaires: The interviewer is provided with the general guide on the type of information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies may be taken down or recorders may be used.
Closed ended questions: offer respondents a number of alternative replies which the subjects must choose the one most closely approximates the write answer. • Open ended questionnaire: here, the items allow the subjects to respond to the question in their own words. The respondent is asked to give a written reply to open ended items and therefore adequate space must be provided to all the expression of opinions.
Types of closed questions: 1. Dichotomous question-the respondent is given a choice to choose the answer between two alternatives, e.g., yes/no 2. Multiple choice questions- the investigator most commonly offers 3 to 5 alternatives to respondent to choose the most appropriate answer. A range of alternatives provides more information in that the researcher can measure the intensity of feelings as well as direction.
3. Rank order questions-here, questions that ask the respondents to rank order their responses along a continuum from most favorable to least favorable
OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Content analysis: consists of analysing the contents of documentary materials like books, magazines, newspapers, diaries, letters, speeches, reports and other linguistic expressions. Depth interviews: explore needs, desires, feelings of respondents and used in motivational research. Projective techniques: include a variety of methods for observing psychological measures with only minimum co-operation from an individual. Projective tests give free play to the subjects imagination and fantasies by providing them the task that permit an almost unlimited number and variety of responses.
Projective techniques: • Word association tests • Sentence completion tests • Story completion tests • Pictorial techniques • Play techniques
Collection of secondary data: Secondary data: Data that are already available either published or unpublished. Precautions while collecting secondary data: • Test the reliability of the data • Enquire for the suitability • Check the adequacy of data Different methods of collecting secondary data: Case study method Reference of text books Analysis of newspaper articles
Case study method: is a method of intensely exploring and analyzing the life of a single social unit that could be a person, a family, institution, culture or even the entire community.
