Anatomy Chapters 1 through 7 1 st semester

1. Anatomy Chapters 1 through 71st semester Study Young Minds!

2. Chapter 1 • Anatomy is the branch of science that studies the structure of body parts. • Physiology is the branch of science that studies the functions of body parts. • Metabolism is the acquisition of food and the utilization of energy, as well as excretion (or removal of wastes). • Organisms need certain key factors to maintain life. They are: Water, which is the most abundant chemical in the body. Foods, Provide nutrients. Oxygen, is a gas that makes up one-fifth of ordinary air. Heat, is a form of energy and a product of metabolic reactions. Pressure, is an application of force on something.

3. Homeostasis • It is important for an internal environment of our bodies to stay within a normal set of limits. The water, nutrients, oxygen, heat, and pressure must remain relatively stable. The body has mechanisms to maintain this balance, and it is known as homeostatic mechanisms. • Receptors in the body provide information about conditions within the body. If a condition is not within a normal limit known as a set point, (such as body temperature, heart rate, etc) then a signal is sent out to the brain to make adjustments. These adjustments are known as Effectors, and the effectors cause a response (like slowing the heart down) to bring the internal environment back to normal limits. This response (i.e. slowing of heart rate) is known as negative feedback.

4. Levels of organization • The body starts as atoms, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cells, tissues, organ, and organ systems. The cellular level of the body is vital in maintaining life. In reality, we live and die on a cellular level and understanding the functions are important in understanding the complexities of our bodies. • NOTE: Review the body cavities on page 8 & 9, as well as thoracic and abdominopelvic membranes on page 10. Finally, review relative positions on page and review vocabulary words on pages 16 and 17.

5. Chapter 2 • The simplest complete unit of an element is the atom. All matter is composed of elements. The four most abundant elements in the human body are: Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen. In fact these elements (and combinations) make up 95% of the human body. • The atomic structure is the central portion of an atom called the nucleus, which then contains protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged and neutrons are neutral. In the shells surrounding the nucleus are the electrons which are negatively charged. The shells maximums are 2 electrons in 1st shell, 8 electrons in 2nd shell, and 18 electrons in 3rd shell. The chemical behavior of atoms results from interactions amongst their electrons. Atoms bond by either sharing, losing, or gaining electrons from other atoms.

6. continued • The number of protons in an atom determines its atomic number. Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1 because it has 1 proton. • The number of protons plus the number of neutrons is the elements atomic weight. • An atom is the most stable when its outer shell is at its capacity. Therefore, atoms can attract electrons and take in a new electron(s) from another atom, or give up an electron(s) to another atom this is an ionic bond. A covalent bond is when the outer rings converge and share electrons.

7. Continued • When two or more atoms bond they form a molecule. If atoms of the same element combine they form molecules of that element. When atoms of different elements combine they form compounds. For example, when hydrogen and water atoms (different elements) combine they form the compound water. • Molecular formula. This is the number and types of atoms in a compound. The molecular formula for water is H2O; which again is 2 atoms of Hydrogen with 1 atom of Oxygen to form a compound.

8. Chemical reactions • Chemical reactions break or form bonds between atoms, ions, or molecules generating new combinations. • When two or more atoms bond to form a more complex structure (Product), the reaction is called synthesis. It is represented by the formula A + B = AB. Synthesis, which requires energy is particularly important in the growth of body parts and/or repair of tissues. • When bonds break to form simpler structures the process, or reaction is called decomposition and is represented AB = A + Bdecomposition occurs when food is digested and energy is released from that process. • A third type of chemical reaction is known as an exchange reaction. It’s simply that two different types of molecules trade positions. When an acid reacts with a base this type of reaction can occur. AB + CD = AD + CB.

9. Chemical constituents of cells • Chemicals that enter into metabolic reactions or are produced by metabolic reactions are divided into 2 groups. They are: • Organic, which is simply that they contain both Carbon and Hydrogen atoms. Basically this is the basis for living things on this earth. Everything else is an inorganic compound. • Electrolytes are products of ions that have been released or dissolved in water. Ions are electrically charged particles. Electrolytes are vital to the health of our bodies and obviously the cells. The concentrations of ions in body fluids greatly affect the chemical reactions from functions such as breathing, blood pressure, etc. These concentrations are measured in a factor known as pH. This is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration and have an inverse relation. Which simply means that a neutral value is 7.0, which contain equal numbers of hydrogen and hydroxide ions. A solution that contains more hydrogen then hydroxide ions is said to be acidic and is measured in number below the 7.0, while a solution with more hydroxide ions then hydrogen ions is said to be a base and is in a range above 7.0. Our bodies have a fairly delicate tolerance to these and problems greatly multiply even unto death of this range is exceeded in either direction.

10. Inorganic substances • Do not be confused by the definition of organic and inorganic compounds as a consideration of what is essential to life. An organic compound is just simply a compound that contains both carbon and hydrogen atoms. Inorganic is anything else, it’s just simply a classification system that is explained in much fuller detail in chemistry. For our purpose we just want to understand what effect these products of metabolic reactions has on our bodies.

11. continued • In table 2.4 you can see some inorganic molecules and what they do for us. Please take a moment to review and think about these substances and what they do. You will see more of this later as we expand our knowledge base. For now, know the following: • Water: Comprises 2/3 of our body weight. Is an important solvent (things dissolve in it). Moves chemicals around in our body and in and out of cells. Absorbs and transports heat that is released from muscle cells. • Oxygen: Molecules enter through respiratory organs. Transported throughout the body by blood and red blood cells. Cellular organelles use oxygen to release energy from the sugar (glucose) and other nutrients. This released energy drives the cell’s metabolic activities. • Salts: Abundant in tissues and fluids. They provide necessary ions or electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, etc. These are important to metabolic processes and are vital for muscle contraction and nerve impulse conduction. • WAR STORY! Remind me to tell you about the homeless person and how eating out of dumpsters resulted in a 9-1-1 call affecting muscle contraction.

12. Organic substances • Carbohydrates: Provide much of the energy that cells require. • Sugars are just carbohydrates with a shorter structural chain. • Fats are used primarily to store energy for cellular activities. Fat molecules can provide more energy gram for gram then carbohydrates. However they contain less oxygen molecules. There are many types of fatty acids, therefore there are many types of fats. Some much better then others. We will learn more on this later. • Proteins work as energy sources, building materials, and hormones.

13. Chapter 3 • Cells, their products and fluids make up the recipe for a human being. The basic working components for a cell are the nucleus, the organelle, the cell membrane and cytoplasm. Certainly the cell is very complex, but for this chapter these are the structures we will look to. • Cell membrane. This is vital to the cell, and it controls which substances enter and exit the cell. Proteins play an important role in this process as attach to the cell membrane and send signals into the cell to help the cell respond and function. The cell membrane is selectively permeable, meaning it lets in certain things and blocks others from entering and messing up the works of the cell. • Cytoplasm. Under a light microscope you can see cytoplasm which appears as a clear jelly with specks scattered throughout. Cell activities occur mainly in the cytoplasm which receive nutrients, then processes them. There are other structures that are within the cytoplasm which we will explore later.

14. Continued • Cell nucleus. The nucleus houses the genetic material (DNA), which directs all cell activities and contains codes for genetic makeup and structure. It is a double layered spherical structure. • Organelle. The organelles are specific structures within the cytoplasm, which was previously mentioned. They are suspended in a fluid known as cytosol, and basically divide the work of the cell with specific functions for those structures. Much a like a supervisor would do at a work site, getting the labor and dividing it up according to abilities and jobs to be done.

15. Movements through cell membranes • Diffusion is the process where molecules or ions scatter or spread spontaneously from regions of higher concentrations to regions of lower concentrations. Within cells diffusion can only occur when the cell membrane allows that substance to pass through and it goes by this process if there is a difference in the pressure gradient (concentration of materials of same type). Note facilitated diffusion takes place only with the aid of proteins on the cells surface that act as a bridge into the cell. More will be discussed in later chapters but know this for now.

16. continued • Osmosis is just a type of diffusion that occurs because of water molecules which diffuse across higher water concentration to lower water concentration across a selectively permeable membrane such as a cell membrane. See figure 3.14 for a visual aid in understanding this concept. All of these methods of diffusion mean that the movement is from a higher concentration to a lower concentration.

17. Active transport • It is important that particles can move from a lower concentration to a higher concentration (think of it like swimming upstream or against a current). • This can be accomplished by carrier molecules. • Other forms of active transport is through absorption of particles, engulfing of particles, and receptors that bind to specific particles that are then drawn into the cell.

18. Chapter 4 • Cells house the many chemical reactions necessary to carry out the process of metabolism. This is essential to building and repairing our bodies. The cell is miraculous in the information contained and the processed of metabolism that carries out the essentials of life. These metabolic reactions are broken down into 2 basic types. • Anabolism provides the biochemical's for cell growth and repair. Anabolism is the buildup of smaller molecules into bigger molecules. • Catabolism is the process of breaking down larger molecules into smaller molecules. • Enzymes speed the rate of these metabolic reactions. Enzymes are almost always made up of proteins.

19. Energy for metabolic reactions • Energy is the capacity to change or move matter, or it is the ability to do work. Most metabolic processes use chemical energy. • Chemical energy is held in the bonds between the atoms of molecules and is released when these bonds are broken, as in burning. Have you ever heard the term “burning fat” if you think about that term you may be able to understand this concept of chemical energy and metabolic processes. Think back a slide to the term catabolism.

20. Cellular respiration • When we think of respiration we think of breathing. But, think deeper into a cell. Think of it as this. The cell takes in nutrients and converts those nutrients for special functions like building our body, repairing, nourishing, etc. In this process things have to be broken down and converted and energy has to be captured and stored. It takes effort to maintain life. • Cells “burn” glucose in a process called oxidation. This energy that is released powers the reactions of cellular metabolism. Kind of like putting gas in your car in a sense. Enzymes assist in this process by reducing the activation energy needed for oxidation. Oxidation is just oxygen combining with another chemical in this case we are talking about glucose. In other words, it’s like adding a gas treatment to your gas tank to make your gas burn better and more efficiently. This is a complex process and there are cycles such that we will be exploring in greater detail later in the 2nd semester. For now, just know these basic concepts.

21. Cells and dna • In the 2nd semester we will explore genetics and DNA, and it will (hopefully) be very interesting. In the meantime know this small concept about DNA…. • When a cell divides each new cell requires a copy of the parent cell’s genetic information so that the new cell can build proteins that are necessary to life functions, and to build cell parts as well as metabolize. To accomplish this task DNA is replicated during a specific stage of cellular replication.

22. Chapter 5 Tissues • Cells organize into groups or layers referred to as tissues. Each type of tissue is composed of similar cells specialized to carry on a particular function. There are four types of tissues in the human body. They are: 1. Epithelial tissues form protective coverings and function in secretion and absorption. 2. Connective tissues support softer body parts and bind structures together. 3. Muscle tissues produce body movement. Nervous tissues conduct impulses that help control body activities.

23. continued • All tissues contain a non living material called the matrix, or intercellular substance. This material varies from tissue to tissue and supports the cells within those tissues. • Epithelial tissues are found throughout the body. This tissue always has a free surface because it forms linings. For instance, the linings of lungs, skin, etc. The underlying tissue is anchored to a tissue known as the basement tissue which is a non-living layer called the basement membrane. • There are different types of epithelial tissue and they are classified according to their shapes.

24. Different epithelial tissues • Simple squamous. Single layer of thin, flattened cells. They fit tightly together with a thin and broad looking nuclei. • Simple cuboidal epithelium. Single layer of cube shaped cells, with a spherical nuclei. • Simple columnar epithelium. Elongated (longer then they are wide) in shape. This tissue secretes glandular substances. Nuclei are usually located in the same area, near the basement membrane. The cells of this tissue can be ciliated (hair like) remember the hairs in your nose! J/K. And, non-ciliated. Those small hairs serve functionally to move things along or to filter. • NOTE: Remember that goblet cells secrete mucus onto the free surface of cells.

25. continued • Stratified squamous epithelium is a layer of cells and is relatively thick. This tissue forms the outer skin. Remember as the Dermis pushes cells upward and away from a good nutrient source the cells become more hardened and begin to grow old and die in a process called Keratinazation (caused mainly from proteins), this then forms a dry protective material that serves as the outer layer of our skin. Without the process of keratinazation, these cells stay moist and therefore can be found in cavities like our mouths.

26. Glandular Epithelium • Are specialized cells designed to produce and secrete substances into ducts or into body fluids. Such cells are usually found within columnar and cuboidal epithelia. One or more of these cells constitute a gland. Glands that open onto an internal or external surface are known as exocrine glands. Glands that secrete their products directly into tissue or blood are known as endocrine glands. • Serous cells produce a thin watery fluid with a high concentration of enzymes. • Mucous cells produce a thicker fluid known as mucus and are secreted from the inner linings of the digestive and respiratory systems.

27. Tissues continued • Tissues that contain an abundance of collagenous fibers (these fibers are thick and threads of the protein collagen). They are flexible but only slightly elastic. These fibers have a great deal of strength so that is why you find that they make up tendons and ligaments. • Remember: Tendons connect muscle to bone, and ligaments connect bone to bone. • Adipose tissues are loose connective tissue this type of tissue stores fats (for energy) and can be found between and within muscles, around kidneys, surface of the heart, and certain joints.

28. Muscle tissues • There are three types of muscle tissues. They are skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Remember for now that skeletal muscle attaches to all of the skeletal and is voluntary. Smooth muscle is within our bodies or organs,(and involuntary). Cardiac is specialized and found only in the heart, and is obviously involuntary. • Nervous tissues are found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The basic cells are called neurons and are supported by nervous tissue or supporting cells known as neuroglial cells. These cells support and bind, as well as carry on phagocytosis help supply a connect to blood vessels for nutrients. • Remember that phagocytosis is the process where a cell engulf and digests (or basically eats up) other substances.

29. Skip along to chapter 7 • At this point we skip chapter 6 and bounce around just a bit. We come back to chapter 6 to cover the skin.

30. Bones and Structure • Bones are alive and multifunctional. Bones are considered to be the organs of the skeletal system. They provide point of attachment, protection, and support of softer tissues. They also house blood producing cells, store inorganic salts, and contain passage for blood vessels and nerves. • Bones are similar in structure, development and function.

31. Long Bone • The ends of each bones have a structure known as the epiphysis. These bones articulate with other bones and have cartilage (hyaline) on the outer surface. This cartilage is known as articular cartilage. What function do you think this would provide? • The shaft of the bone is called the Diaphysis.

32. Except for the articular cartilage on the ends of the bone; the bones have a tough and vascular covering known as the periosteum. This periosteum is continuous with ligaments and tendons. • The wall of the diaphysis is mainly composed of tightly packed tissue called compact bone. There is a continuous matrix in this bone with no gaps. Whereas the epiphyses is composed largely of spongy bone. This matrix is irregular in connecting spaces and is not tightly packed like the compact bone.

33. Compact bone in the diaphysis of a long bone forms a semi rigid tube with a hollow tube. The tube has a specialized type of soft connective tissue called marrow, this tube is known as the medullary cavity.

34. Microscopic Structure • Osteocytes are bone cells and are located in bony chambers called lacunae, which form circles around central canals, known as Haversian canals. Osteocytes communicate with nearby cells. The intercellular material of bone tissue is largely collagen and inorganic salts. Collagen gives bone its strength and resilience, and inorganic salts make it hard and resistant to crushing. Each of these Haversian canals contain blood vessels and lead to larger canals that contain larger vessels and nerves.

35. Spongy bone is also composed of osteocytes, but unlike compact bone, there is no direct blood flow, rather they get substances for bone building through diffusion.

36. How Bones Form • There are 2 ways in which bones form. They form by replacing connective tissue. • After discussion focus on the following 2 ways in which bones form: • Intramembranous bones originate between sheet like layers of connective tissues. • Endochondrial bones start off as masses of cartilage that bone tissue later replaces.

37. Bone development and growth • Osteoblasts are bone forming cells. They are capable of moving into areas of cartilage and then through Phagocytosis absorbing that tissue and forming bone tissue. Osteoblasts become active in the bone matrix and start to build bone by depositing bony matrix around themselves. • Endochondral bones make up most bones of the skeleton. They develop from masses of hyaline cartilage. • In a long bone, the changes being in the center of the diaphysis (shaft) of the bone. The cartilage slowly breaks down and disappears while at the same time, a periosteum forms from connective tissue that encircles the developing diaphysis. Blood vessels and osteoblasts from the periosteum invade the disintegrating cartilage and spongy bone forms in its place. This region of bone formation is called the primary ossification center.

38. Epiphyseal plate • The epiphyseal plate remains between the 2 layers of the previous mentioned calcification centers. So, basically what it is; is a barrier of sorts between the inner shaft (diaphysis) of the bone and the end of the bone (epiphysis) this plate is known as the growth plate because it is literally generating new bone while we grow. That is why fractures at this site are a concern for Doctors, and of course for us!

39. Homeostasis of bone tissue • After the 2 different bone types have grown (remember the bone types are intramembranous and endochondral bones) then osteocytes and osteoblasts continue to remodel them. Throughout life, osteoclasts resorb bone matrix and osteoblasts replace it. A key component in this process is calcium which is regulated by hormones. Although as an adult our bone mass holds fairly stable (to a certain point) it is replaced at a rate of 3 – 5 % per year. This is a key process in keeping our bones healthy.

40. Skipping along! • Now we go ahead to 7.13, so we skip a few items.

41. Joints. Section 7.13 • Joints are most often grouped by type of tissue; which are fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial. This is the type of tissue that binds the bones together at each junction. A joint is just an area where 2 bones meet and create a functional area such as the elbow, knee, etc. Some joints are freely movable with a great range of motion like the knee. Other joints, like some in the foot are limited in movement, but obviously join many bones together to make a functional body part.

42. Fibrous Joints • Is an area where bones closely contact one another and such contact is joined by dense connective tissue. An example would be the skull, where the joint is more like a suture.

43. Cartilaginous Joints • These joints are connected by hyaline cartilage, or fibro cartilage. An example of a cartilaginous joint would be the vertebrae of the spinal column. Such joints are simply pads filled with a jell type substance that pads and protects. These type of joints have limited movement.

44. Synovial Joints • These are the majority of joints found in the skeletal system. • These joints are more complex and provide the most movement. • The articular ends of these joints have a layer of hyaline cartilage along with a capsule of dense connective tissue that holds the joint together with ligaments. The inner lining has a synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid that lubricates the joints. • Some synovial joints have flattened shock absorbing pads called menisci, or meniscus. Some of these menisci have bursae which is a sac filled with fluid. This bursae is located between skin and bone of a joint and help the tendons glide over the bone. An example would be the knee cap (patella), where the bursae lies between the skin and patella.

45. Chapter 6 - Integumentary • Two or more kinds of tissues grouped together and performing a specialized function constitutes an organ. • The Integumentary system is commonly called the skin. • Think of membrane as a selective barrier. • There are four types of membranes, and they are : Serous membranes, Mucous membranes, Synovial membranes, and Cutaneous membranes.

46. Types of membranes • Serous: These line body cavities that lack openings to the outside. Cells of a serous membrane secrete watery serous fluid, which lubricates the surfaces. Examples would be lining of lungs, hearts, and other internal organs. • Mucous: Line cavities and tubes that open to the outside of the body. They have Goblet cells that secrete mucus. Examples are oral and nasal cavities, urinary and reproductive organs.

47. Types of membranes cont’d • Synovial: Form the inner linings of joint cavities, at freely movable joints. These membranes usually have dense connective tissue overlying loose connective tissues and adipose tissue. The cells secrete a thick, colorless synovial fluid into the cavity. NOTE: These 2 layers are separated by a basement membrane. • Cutaneous: (skin), larger organ in the body and essential for homeostasis. Skin includes 2 layers; the outer is known as epidermis (epi means on top). And the dermis, which is composed of numerous tissues, muscles, and blood. Below that is the subcutaneous tissue.

48. Chapter 6

49. Assignment • Starting 11/30 you are to review 5 slides every evening starting of course at the beginning. • When you come to class you are to, first thing, sit down in your groups and review those slides together. You are to spend 20 minutes of actual review. If you are not reviewing then I will be forced to split you up and you will not be able to use your gadgets. Upon completion of this review ALL gadgets get put away and turned OFF. Then, I will answer any questions you have and move on to the other lesson material which will be the cardiovascular system.