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Chapter 5

Chapter 5. Uncertainty and Consumer Behavior. Topics to be Discussed. Describing Risk Preferences Toward Risk Reducing Risk The Demand for Risky Assets. Introduction. Choice with certainty is reasonably straightforward

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Chapter 5

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  1. Chapter 5 Uncertainty and Consumer Behavior

  2. Topics to be Discussed • Describing Risk • Preferences Toward Risk • Reducing Risk • The Demand for Risky Assets Chapter 5

  3. Introduction • Choice with certainty is reasonably straightforward • How do we make choices when certain variables such as income and prices are uncertain (making choices with risk)? Chapter 5

  4. Describing Risk • To measure risk we must know: • All of the possible outcomes • The probability or likelihood that each outcome will occur Chapter 5

  5. Describing Risk • Interpreting Probability • Objective Interpretation • Based on the observed frequency of past events • Subjective Interpretation • Based on perception that an outcome will occur Chapter 5

  6. Interpreting Probability • Subjective Probability • Different information or different abilities to process the same information can influence the subjective probability • Based on judgment or experience Chapter 5

  7. Describing Risk • With an interpretation of probability, must determine 2 measures to help describe and compare risky choices • Expected value • Variability Chapter 5

  8. Describing Risk • Expected Value • The weighted average of the payoffs or values resulting from all possible outcomes • Expected value measures the central tendency; the payoff or value expected on average Chapter 5

  9. Expected Value – An Example • Investment in offshore drilling exploration: • Two outcomes are possible • Success – the stock price increases from $30 to $40/share • Failure – the stock price falls from $30 to $20/share Chapter 5

  10. Expected Value – An Example • Objective Probability • 100 explorations, 25 successes and 75 failures • Probability (Pr) of success = 1/4 and the probability of failure = 3/4 Chapter 5

  11. Expected Value – An Example Chapter 5

  12. Expected Value • In general, for n possible outcomes: • Possible outcomes having payoffs X1, X2, …, Xn • Probabilities of each outcome is given by Pr1, Pr2, …, Prn Chapter 5

  13. Describing Risk • Variability • The extent to which possible outcomes of an uncertain event may differ • How much variation exists in the possible choice Chapter 5

  14. Variability – An Example • Suppose you are choosing between two part-time sales jobs that have the same expected income ($1,500) • The first job is based entirely on commission • The second is a salaried position Chapter 5

  15. Variability – An Example • There are two equally likely outcomes in the first job: $2,000 for a good sales job and $1,000 for a modestly successful one • The second pays $1,510 most of the time (.99 probability), but you will earn $510 if the company goes out of business (.01 probability) Chapter 5

  16. Variability – An Example Chapter 5

  17. Variability – An Example • Income from Possible Sales Job Job 1 Expected Income Job 2 Expected Income Chapter 5

  18. Variability • While the expected values are the same, the variability is not • Greater variability from expected values signals greater risk • Variability comes from deviations in payoffs • Difference between expected payoff and actual payoff Chapter 5

  19. Variability – An Example Chapter 5

  20. Variability • Average deviations are always zero so we must adjust for negative numbers • We can measure variability with standard deviation • The square root of the average of the squares of the deviations of the payoffs associated with each outcome from their expected value Chapter 5

  21. Variability • Standard deviation is a measure of risk • Measures how variable your payoff will be • More variability means more risk • Individuals generally prefer less variability – less risk Chapter 5

  22. Variability • The standard deviation is written: Chapter 5

  23. Standard Deviation – Example 1 Chapter 5

  24. Standard Deviation – Example 1 • Standard deviations of the two jobs are: Chapter 5

  25. Standard Deviation – Example 1 • Job 1 has a larger standard deviation and therefore it is the riskier alternative • The standard deviation also can be used when there are many outcomes instead of only two Chapter 5

  26. Standard Deviation – Example 2 • Job 1 is a job in which the income ranges from $1000 to $2000 in increments of $100 that are all equally likely • Job 2 is a job in which the income ranges from $1300 to $1700 in increments of $100 that, also, are all equally likely Chapter 5

  27. Job2 Job 1 Outcome Probabilities - Two Jobs Job 1 has greater spread: greater standard deviation and greater risk than Job 2. Probability 0.2 0.1 Income $1000 $1500 $2000 Chapter 5

  28. Decision Making – Example 1 • What if the outcome probabilities of two jobs have unequal probability of outcomes? • Job 1: greater spread and standard deviation • Peaked distribution: extreme payoffs are less likely that those in the middle of the distribution • You will choose job 2 again Chapter 5

  29. Job 2 Job 1 Unequal Probability Outcomes The distribution of payoffs associated with Job 1 has a greater spread and standard deviation than those with Job 2. Probability 0.2 0.1 Income $1000 $1500 $2000 Chapter 5

  30. Decision Making – Example 2 • Suppose we add $100 to each payoff in Job 1 which makes the expected payoff = $1600 • Job 1: expected income $1,600 and a standard deviation of $500 • Job 2: expected income of $1,500 and a standard deviation of $99.50 Chapter 5

  31. Decision Making – Example 2 • Which job should be chosen? • Depends on the individual • Some may be willing to take risk with higher expected income • Some will prefer less risk even with lower expected income Chapter 5

  32. Risk and Crime Deterrence • Attitudes toward risk affect willingness to break the law • Suppose a city wants to deter people from double parking • Monetary fines may be better than jail time Chapter 5

  33. Risk and Crime Deterrence • Costs of apprehending criminals are not zero, therefore • Fines must be higher than the costs to society • Probability of apprehension is actually less than one Chapter 5

  34. Risk and Crime Deterrence - Example • Assumptions: • Double-parking saves a person $5 in terms of time spent searching for a parking space • The driver is risk neutral • Cost of apprehension is zero Chapter 5

  35. Risk and Crime Deterrence - Example • A fine greater than $5.00 would deter the driver from double parking • Benefit of double parking ($5) is less than the cost ($6.00) equals a net benefit that is negative • If the value of double parking is greater than $5.00, then the person would still break the law Chapter 5

  36. Risk and Crime Deterrence - Example • The same deterrence effect is obtained by either • A $50 fine with a 0.1 probability of being caught resulting in an expected penalty of $5 or • A $500 fine with a 0.01 probability of being caught resulting in an expected penalty of $5 Chapter 5

  37. Risk and Crime Deterrence - Example • Enforcement costs are reduced with high fine and low probability • Most effective if drivers don’t like to take risks Chapter 5

  38. Preferences Toward Risk • Can expand evaluation of risky alternative by considering utility that is obtained by risk • A consumer gets utility from income • Payoff measured in terms of utility Chapter 5

  39. Preferences Toward Risk - Example • A person is earning $15,000 and receiving 13.5 units of utility from the job • She is considering a new, but risky job • 0.50 chance of $30,000 • 0.50 chance of $10,000 Chapter 5

  40. Preferences Toward Risk - Example • Utility at $30,000 is 18 • Utility at $10,000 is 10 • Must compare utility from the risky job with current utility of 13.5 • To evaluate the new job, we must calculate the expected utility of the risky job Chapter 5

  41. Preferences Toward Risk • The expected utility of the risky option is the sum of the utilities associated with all her possible incomes weighted by the probability that each income will occur E(u) = (Prob. of Utility 1) *(Utility 1) + (Prob. of Utility 2)*(Utility 2) Chapter 5

  42. Preferences Toward Risk – Example • The expected is: E(u) = (1/2)u($10,000) + (1/2)u($30,000) = 0.5(10) + 0.5(18) = 14 • E(u) of new job is 14, which is greater than the current utility of 13.5 and therefore preferred Chapter 5

  43. Preferences Toward Risk • People differ in their preference toward risk • People can be risk averse, risk neutral, or risk loving Chapter 5

  44. Preferences Toward Risk • Risk Averse • A person who prefers a certain given income to a risky income with the same expected value • The person has a diminishing marginal utility of income • Most common attitude towards risk • Ex: Market for insurance Chapter 5

  45. Risk Averse - Example • A person can have a $20,000 job with 100% probability and receive a utility level of 16 • The person could have a job with a 0.5 chance of earning $30,000 and a 0.5 chance of earning $10,000 Chapter 5

  46. Risk Averse – Example • Expected Income of Risky Job E(I) = (0.5)($30,000) + (0.5)($10,000) E(I) = $20,000 • Expected Utility of Risky Job E(u) = (0.5)(10) + (0.5)(18) E(u) = 14 Chapter 5

  47. Risk Averse – Example • Expected income from both jobs is the same – risk averse may choose current job • Expected utility is greater for certain job • Would keep certain job • Risk averse person’s losses (decreased utility) are more important than risky gains Chapter 5

  48. Risk Averse • Can see risk averse choices graphically • Risky job has expected income = $20,000 with expected utility = 14 • Point F • Certain job has expected income = $20,000 with utility = 16 • Point D Chapter 5

  49. E 18 D 16 C 14 F A 10 0 10 16 20 30 Risk Averse Utility Function Utility The consumer is risk averse because she would prefer a certain income of $20,000 to an uncertain expected income = $20,000 Income($1,000) Chapter 5

  50. Preferences Toward Risk • A person is said to be risk neutral if they show no preference between a certain income, and an uncertain income with the same expected value • Constant marginal utility of income Chapter 5

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