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Chapter 14

Chapter 14. Social Psychology. Questions We Will Be Addressing in This Chapter. How do we compare ourselves to others? Do we perceive people and objects in similar ways? Do attitudes always determine behavior? How does prejudice develop? What factors affect who likes whom?

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Chapter 14

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  1. Chapter 14 Social Psychology

  2. Questions We Will Be Addressing in This Chapter How do we compare ourselves to others? Do we perceive people and objects in similar ways? Do attitudes always determine behavior? How does prejudice develop? What factors affect who likes whom? What social rules shape our behavior?

  3. Questions We Will Be Addressing in This Chapter (cont’d) How far will people go in obeying authority? Are people born aggressive? What motivates people to help one another? What makes a good leader?

  4. What Is Social Psychology? The scientific study of: How one’s thoughts and feelings influence his/her behavior toward others; How the behavior of others influences one’s own thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

  5. Social Influences on the Self How do we compare ourselves to others?

  6. Social Influences on Self Self-concept Social comparison and self-esteem Role of reference groups Downward vs. upward social comparison Relative deprivation Social identity theory Focus on Research – Self-esteem and the Ultimate Terror

  7. Social Perception Do we perceive people and objects in similar ways?

  8. Role of Schemas How do schemas affect perceptions of people? Schema-consistent information processed more quickly. Influences what is remembered about others. Affects judgments about the behavior of others. Schemas can influence first impressions. Impressions slow to change. Self-fulfilling prophecies can occur.

  9. Explaining Behavior: Attributions Internal vs. external attributions Biases in attribution Fundamental attribution error Ultimate attribution error Actor-observer bias Self-serving bias

  10. Attitudes Do attitudes always determine behavior?

  11. Structure of Attitudes Cognitive component Emotional, or affective, component Behavioral component

  12. When Is Behavior Consistent with Attitude? Attitude is important and relevant. Behavioral component of attitude is consistent with subjective norms. People have perceived control. One has direct experience with the object of the attitude.

  13. How Do Attitudes Form? Genetics Social learning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Mere-exposure effect

  14. What Influences Successful Attitude Change? The person communicating the message The content of the message The audience receiving the message

  15. Figure 14.2: The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Attitude Change

  16. Cognitive Dissonance Theory • People want their thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes to be in harmony • Are motivated to make them so when dissonance occurs • Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) study • $20 condition • $1 condition • Results

  17. Cognitive Dissonance Theory • Attitude-behavior inconsistency changes when: • The inconsistency causes some distress or discomfort to person • Changing attitudes will reduce that discomfort • But why should inconsistency cause discomfort? • Multiple theories • Most popular currently: when positive self-concept is threatened by inconsistency

  18. Prejudice and Stereotypes How does prejudice develop?

  19. Stereotypes Schemas about entire groups of people. Effects on behavior can be automatic and unconscious. Often leads to prejudice. Behavioral component involves discrimination.

  20. Theories of Prejudice and Stereotyping Motivational theories Serves to meet certain needs and increase sense of security. Authoritarianism trait Cognitive theories Social categorization can lead to illusory correlations. Learning theories

  21. Reducing Prejudice: Contact Hypothesis Stereotypes and prejudice will diminish as contact with the group increases. Requirements: Members of the two groups are of roughly equal social and economic status. Authorities advocate cooperation and interdependence. Contact between members occurs on a one-to-one basis.

  22. Interpersonal Attraction What factors affect who likes whom?

  23. Keys to Attraction The environment Physical proximity Circumstances under which people first meet Similarity between individuals Preference for balanced relationships Physical attractiveness Matching hypothesis Balanced and imbalanced relationships

  24. Figure 14.6: Sex Differences in Date and Mate Preferences

  25. Intimate Relationships Key components Interdependence Commitment Analyzing love Passionate vs. companionate love Sternberg’s triangular theory Influence of cultural factors

  26. Strong vs. Weak Marriages Premarital attitudes and feelings predictive of marital success. Marital satisfaction enhanced when: At least for women, the partners talk a lot about the relationship. The partners perceive the relationship as fair or equitable. The couple is able to deal with conflict and anger in the relationship.

  27. Predicting Divorce For those who divorce relatively soon: Inability to control the expression of feelings, especially negative ones. Increasingly hurtful communication. For those who divorce after many years: Become increasingly less likely to communicate any feelings.

  28. Social Influence What social rules shape our behavior?

  29. Social Influence Social norms Norm of reciprocity Deindividuation Conformity Compliance

  30. Conformity Classic experiments Sherif (1937) Asch (1956) Why do people conform? Public conformity Private acceptance Experiments by Asch

  31. VIDEO: Conformity Discussion Questions

  32. Why Are Group Norms Powerful? People are motivated to be correct. Norms provide information about what is right and wrong. People want to be liked by other group members. We generally like those who agree with us. Norms affect the distribution of social reward and punishment.

  33. When Do People Conform? Ambiguity of the situation Unanimity of the group Size of the majority Minority influence

  34. Creating Compliance Foot-in-the-door technique Door-in-the-face procedure Low-ball approach

  35. Obedience How far will people go in obeying authority?

  36. Obedience Milgram’s obedience experiments Factors influencing obedience: Experimenter status and prestige Behavior of other people Personality characteristics Are Milgram’s findings relevant today? Were Milgram’s studies ethical? What do Milgram’s results mean?

  37. Aggression Are people born aggressive?

  38. Aggression What is aggression? An action intended to harm another person. Why are people aggressive? Freud Evolutionary psychologists

  39. What Can Influence Aggression? Biological factors Heredity Brain structures Hormones Drugs affecting the central nervous system Learning and cultural mechanisms Individualist vs. collectivist Watching others Testosterone and aggression

  40. When Are People Aggressive? Frustration-aggression hypothesis Berkowitz’s modifications to hypothesis Role of stress and environmental stimuli Negative affect as cause of aggression Generalized arousal and aggression Excitation transfer Opportunity or target for aggression exists Thinking Critically – Does Pornography Cause Aggression?

  41. Environmental Influences on Aggression Weather Living arrangements Effects of temperature on aggression

  42. Altruism and Helping Behavior What motivates people to help one another?

  43. What Is Helping Behavior? Any act that is intended to benefit another person. Altruism is an unselfish concern for another’s welfare.

  44. Why Do People Help? Role of social influence Major theories Arousal: Cost-reward theory Empathy-altruism helping theory Evolutionary theory Kin selection

  45. What Impact Can Goals Have on How People Interact? Cooperation Competition Conflict Social dilemmas

  46. Group Processes What makes a good leader?

  47. How Can the Presence of Others Affect One’s Behavior? Social facilitation Social interference Social loafing

  48. Group Leadership Previously, two main types of leaders Task-motivated leaders Relationship-motivated leaders Recently, additional leadership styles Transactional leaders Transformational or charismatic leaders Gender and leadership

  49. Groupthink Flawed decision-making by groups Contributing conditions: Decision is not based on all the facts at hand. Group members all share certain biases. Members who express disagreement are punished or ejected from the group. Group leader pressures group to reach agreement.

  50. Linkages: Biological and Social Psychology Social neuroscience How do social processes influence biological processes? How do biological processes influence social psychological phenomena? Value to this approach

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