What Drives Us: Hunger, Sex, Belonging, and Achievement

1. Chapter 11 What Drives Us:Hunger, Sex, Belonging,and Achievement PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers C. Nathan DeWall Twelfth Edition

2. Chapter Overview • Basic Motivational Concepts • Hunger • Sexual Motivation • Affiliation and Achievement

3. Basic Motivational Concepts • Motivation: Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. • Four perspectives for understanding motivated behaviors: • Instinct theory (evolutionary perspective): Genetically predisposed behaviors • Drive-reduction theory: Responses to inner pushes • Arousal theory: Right levels of stimulation • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Priority of some needs over others

4. Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology • Darwin • Classification of many behaviors as instincts; named but did not explain behaviors • Instinct • Fixed, unlearned pattern throughout species • Genes predispose some species-typical behavior

5. Same Motive, Different Wiring The more complex the nervous system, the more adaptable the organism. Both humans and weaverbirds satisfy their need for shelter in ways that reflect their inherited capacities.

6. Drives and Incentives • Drive-reduction theory suggests physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. • Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; it involves the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry. • Incentive involves a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

7. Drive-Reduction Theory • We have physiological needs. • Unmet needs create a drive. • That drive pushes us to reduce the need.

8. Motivational Concepts • Arousal theory • Humans are motivated to engage in behaviors that either increase or decrease arousal levels. • High arousal levels motivate engagement in behaviors that will lower these levels. • Low arousal levels motivate activities that can increase arousal—often through curiosity. • Yerkes-Dodson law: Performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

9. A Hierarchy of Needs • Maslow • Viewed human motives as pyramid • At the base are basic physiological needs; at the peak are the highest human needs.

10. Classic Motivation Theories

11. The Physiology of Hunger (part 1) • Humans automatically regulate caloric intake through a homeostatic system to prevent energy deficits and maintain stable body weight. • Stomach contractions • Blood sugar glucose regulation • Appetite hormones • Set point • Basal metabolic rate

12. The Physiology of Hunger (part 2) • Glucose • The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues • Triggers the feeling of hunger when low • Hypothalamus and other brain structures • Arcuate nucleus: Pumps out appetite-suppressing hormones

13. The Physiology of Hunger (part 3)

14. The Appetite Hormones • Increase appetite: • Ghrelin: Secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain. • Orexin: Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus. • Decrease appetite: • Insulin: Secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose. • Leptin: Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger. • PYY: Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain.

15. The Physiology of Hunger (part 4) • Set point: The point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight. • Basal metabolic rate: The body’s resting rate of energy output.

16. The Psychology of Hunger • Body chemistry and environmental factors influence taste preferences. • Biology • Universal preferences for sweet and salty tastes • Calming effects of serotonin boost from carbohydrates

17. Taste Preferences: Culture • Examples • Bedouins: Camel eye • Japanese: Nattó • Westerners: Rotted bodily fluid of ungulate (cheese) • Adaptive • Spicier food preferences in hotter climates • Pregnancy-related nausea and food aversion peak at 10 weeks in utero

18. An Acquired Taste People everywhere learn to enjoy the fatty, bitter, or spicy foods common in their culture. For these Alaska Natives (left), but not for most other North Americans, whale blubber is a tasty treat. For Peruvians (right), roasted guinea pig is similarly delicious.

19. Situational Influences on Eating • Tempting situations • Friends and food: Presence of others amplifies natural behavior tendencies (social facilitation). • Serving size is significant: Quantity of consumed food is influenced by size of serving, dinnerware, and cultural norms. • Selections stimulate: Food variety stimulates eating. • Nudging nutrition: One research team quadrupled the carrots taken by offering schoolchildren carrots before they picked up other foods in a lunch line (Redden et al., 2015).

20. Obesity and Weight Control • Data from 188 countries reveal: • Proportion of overweight adults increased from 29 to 37 percent among men over 33 years, and from 30 to 38 percent among women • No reduced obesity rate in ANY country in this period • In 2010, no U.S. state had an obesity rate less than 20 percent. • Extreme obesity carries a wide range of health risks.

21. The Physiology of Obesity • Genetics influences body weight. • Children’s weights resemble those of their biological parents. • Identical twins have similar weights, even when raised apart. • Environment influences obesity. • Sleep loss contributes to a fall in leptin levels and a rise in ghrelin levels. • Social influence seen in the correlation among friends’ weights. • Increased food consumption and lower activity levels are seen worldwide.

22. Waist Management • Begin only if you feel motivated and self-disciplined. • Exercise and get enough sleep. • Minimize exposure to tempting food cues. • Limit variety and eat healthy foods. • Reduce portion sizes. • Don’t starve all day and eat one big meal at night. • Beware of the binge. • Before eating with others, decide how much you want to eat. • Remember that most people occasionally lapse. • Connect to a support group.

23. Hormones and Sexual Behavior (part 1) • Testosterone • Most important male sex hormone • Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. • Estrogen sex hormones • Estradiol is secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributes to female sex characteristics. • In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

24. Hormones and Sexual Behavior (part 2) • Large hormonal surges or declines occur at two predictable points in the life span. • The pubertal-stage surge triggers development of sex characteristics and sexual interest. • Estrogen levels fall in later life, causing menopause in women. • A third point sometimes occurs. • For some people, surgery or drugs may cause hormonal shifts.

25. The Sexual Response Cycle • Excitement: The genital areas become engorged with blood, causing a woman’s clitoris and a man’s penis to swell. A woman’s vagina expands and secretes lubricant; her breasts and nipples may enlarge. • Plateau: Excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase. • Orgasm: Muscle contractions appear all over the body and are accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates. • Resolution: The body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood.

26. Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias (part 1) • Sexual dysfunctions • Impair sexual arousal or functioning • Often involve sexual motivation, especially sexual energy and arousal • Males: Include erectile disorder and premature ejaculation • Females: Include female orgasmic disorder and female sexual interest/arousal disorder

27. Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias (part 2) • Erectile disorder • Inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient blood flow to the penis • Premature ejaculation • Sexual climax that occurs before the man or his partner wishes • Female orgasmic disorder • Feeling distressed due to infrequently or never experiencing orgasm

28. Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias (part 3) • Paraphilias • Experiencing sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, or nonconsenting persons • People with paraphilias (mostly men) do experience sexual desire, but they direct it in unusual ways (Baur et al., 2016).

29. Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias (part 4) • American Psychological Association (2013) • Classifies people who experience sexual desire in unusual ways as disordered only if: • The person experiences distress from unusual sexual interest. • The interest entails harm or risk of harm to others. • Necrophilia, exhibitionism, pedophilia

30. Sexually Transmitted Infections (part 1) • Sexually transmitted infection (STI) • Also called sexually transmitted disease (STD) • Spread primarily from person-to-person sexual contact • Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) • Is a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection • Caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) • Depletes the immune system and leaves the person vulnerable to other infections

31. Sexually Transmitted Infections (part 2) • Rates have increased in recent years, especially for people younger than 25. • CDC report: In 14- to 19-year-old U.S. females, 39.5 percent had STIs. • Condom use effectiveness varies by infection (80 percent effectiveness when used with infected partner; less effective with skin-to-skin STIs). • Significant link between oral sex and STIs • Women’s AIDS rates are increasing the most rapidly.

32. The Psychology of Sex (part 1) • Our sophisticated brain allows us to experience sexual arousal both from what is real and from what is imagined. • External stimuli • Men are more aroused when erotic material aligns with their personal sexual interest. • Content and intensity of sexual experience arouse women. • Pornography may decrease sexual satisfaction with own partner; may change perceptions about rape and other sexual violence.

33. The Psychology of Sex (part 2) • Imagined stimuli • Sexual desire and arousal can be imagined. • 90 percent of spinal-injured men reported feeling sexual desire. • 95 percent of people report having sexual fantasies. • Males: Tend to be more frequent, more physical, and less romantic

34. Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation

35. Teen Pregnancy (part 1) • Influences on teen pregnancy rate • Minimal communication about birth control • Guilt related to sexual activity • Alcohol use • Mass-media norms of unprotected promiscuity • Thanks to decreased sexual activity and increased protection, U.S. teen pregnancy rates are declining (CDC, 2016b; Twenge et al., 2016).

36. Teen Pregnancy (part 2) • Characteristics of teens who delay having sex • High intelligence • Religious engagement • Father presence • Participation in service learning program

37. What Is Sexual Orientation? • Enduring sexual attraction toward: • Members of one’s own sex (homosexual orientation) • The other sex (heterosexual orientation) • Both sexes (bisexual orientation) • In all cultures, heterosexuality has prevailed and bisexuality and homosexuality have endured.

38. Sexual Orientation: The Numbers • Survey results vary by survey methods and population; less open responses are obtained in less tolerant places. • Exclusively homosexual: 3 to 4 percent of men and 2 percent of women • In a follow-up survey, 1.6 percent of women and 2.3 percent of men anonymously reported feeling “mostly” or “only” same-sex attraction (Copen et al., 2016).

39. Sexual Orientation (part 1) • Today’s psychologists view sexual orientation as neither willfully chosen nor willfully changed. • In 2016, Malta became the first European country to outlaw the controversial practice of “conversion therapy,” which aims to change people’s gender identities or sexual orientations. • Sexual orientation is especially persistent for men. Women’s sexual orientation tends to be less strongly felt and, for some women, is more fluid and changing (Dickson et al., 2013; Norris et al., 2015).

40. Origins of Sexual Orientation • Is homosexuality linked with a child’s problematic relationships with parents, such as with a domineering mother and an ineffectual father, or a possessive mother and a hostile father? • Does homosexuality involve a fear or hatred of people of the other sex, leading individuals to direct their desires toward members of their own sex? • Is sexual orientation linked with sex hormone levels currently in the blood? • As children, were most homosexuals molested, seduced, or otherwise sexually victimized by an adult homosexual?

41. Sexual Orientation (part 2) • Gay–straight brain differences • One hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller in women and gay men than in straight men. • Gay men’s hypothalamus reacts as straight women’s hypothalamus does to the smell of sex-related hormones. • Genetic influences • Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than among fraternal twins. • Sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically manipulated. • Male homosexuality often appears to be transmitted from the mother’s side of the family.

42. Sexual Orientation: Prenatal Influences • Altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and other animals. • Men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay, possibly due to a maternal immune system reaction. • The consistency of the brain, genetic, and prenatal findings has swung the pendulum toward a biological explanation of sexual orientation.

43. Gay–Straight Trait Differences

44. Spatial Abilities and Sexual Orientation

45. Sex and Human Relationships • Research does not seek to define the personal meaning of sex. • The benefits of commitment—of “vow power”—apply regardless of sexual orientation. Gay and straight couples experience almost identical stability in their relationships, if they have married or entered into a civil union—and almost identical instability, if they have not (Rosenfeld, 2014).

46. The Benefits of Belonging • Social bonds and cooperation enhanced early ancestors’ survivability. • Combat was more successful. • Reproduction was strengthened. • Foes were avoided. • Having a social identity—feeling part of a group— boosts people’s health and well-being (Allen et al., 2015; Greenaway et al., 2015, 2016).

47. Affiliation and Achievement: The Need to Belong • Humans are still innately social beings. • The need to belong affects thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. • Feelings of love activate the brain reward and safety systems • Social isolation increases the risk for mental decline and poor health. • Affiliation need: The need to build relationships and to feel a part of a group

48. The Pain of Being Shut Out • Being socially excluded (ostracism) threatens the need to belong. • Real pain is experienced in social isolation. • Increased activity in anterior cingulate cortex is activated (pain response area). • Acetaminophen lessens social as well as physical pain. • Across cultures, social pain is felt with the same earmarks as physical pain. • Social exclusion may interfere with empathy for others, increase aggression, or raise the risk for self-defeating behavior or underperformance.

49. The Need to Belong • Pain of being shut out • Worldwide, many forms of ostracism are used. • Brain scans reveal that ostracism causes physical pain. • Social isolation and rejection foster depressed moods or emotional numbness and can trigger aggression. • Risk for mental decline and ill health may also occur. • Ostracism breeds disagreeableness, which leads to further ostracism (Hales et al., 2016).

50. Connecting and Social Networking • Mobile phones: In 2016, 95 percent of the world’s 7.5 billion people lived in an area covered by a mobile-cellular network (ITU, 2016). • Texts: The typical U.S. teen with a cell phone sends 30 texts a day (Lenhart, 2015). Half of 18- to 29-year-olds with a smartphone check it multiple times per hour, and “can’t imagine . . . life without [it]” (Newport, 2015; Saad, 2015). • The Internet: Worldwide, 68 percent of adults used the Internet in 2015 (Poushter, 2016). • Social networking: Among 2014’s entering U.S. college students, 94 percent were using social networking sites (Eagan et al., 2014).