John W. Santrock

1. Children 7 Socioemotional Development in Infancy John W. Santrock

2. Socioemotional Development in Infancy • How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? • How Do Social Understanding and Attachment Develop in Infancy? • How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?

3. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Images of Children • The story of Darius’s fathering • Work-at-home father • Extensive father-child interactions • Introduction of Child Care Center • Coordinated careers and child care

4. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Emotional Development • Emotion: feeling or affect • Physiological arousal • Conscious experience • Behavioral expression • Positive or negative • Varies in intensity • Influenced by one’s perceptions

5. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Biological Foundations and Experience • Emotions • Involve early-developing regions of human nervous system, limbic system, brain stem • Emotional responses in infancy result from developmental changes • Role of relationships

6. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? A Functionalist View of Emotion • Cannot separate emotional responses from evoking situation or context • Signals attempts to adapt to specific roles • Emotions are relational • Linked with an individual’s goals

7. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Early Emotions • Two broad types of emotions • Primary: present in humans, animals • Appear within first 6 months of life • Include surprise, anger, joy, sadness, fear • Promote caregiver-infant interactions

8. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Early Emotions • Two broad types of emotions • Self-conscious:requires cognition • Empathy, jealousy, embarrassment can appear about 6 months • Pride, shame, guilt first appear about 1 to 1½ years • Enables child to use social standards and evaluate own behavior

9. Basic Cry Rhythmic pattern usually consisting of cry, briefer silence, shorter inspiratory whistle, and brief rest Anger Cry Similar to basic cry, with more excess air forced through vocal chords Pain Cry Sudden loud, long initial cry followed by extended period of breath holding; without preliminary moaning How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Crying

10. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Smiling • Reflexive smile • Not a response to external stimuli • Happens during first month after birth, usually during sleep • Social smile • Appears about 2 to 3 months of age • Response to external stimulus, faces

11. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Fear • First appears about 6 months of age • Stranger anxiety: fear and wariness of strangers • Intense from 9 to 12 months • Less intense reaction to children, smiling strangers • Separation protest: distress at being separated from caregiver • peaks at about 15 months in U.S. infants

12. African Bushman 100 Antiguan Guatemala 80 Guatemalan Indian 60 Israeli Kibbutzim Percent of children who cried when mothers left 40 20 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 Age (in months) Separation Anxiety in Four Cultures Fig. 7.3

13. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Emotional Regulation and Coping • Emotional regulation: effectively managing arousal to adapt, reach goal • Infants move from caregiver soothing to self-soothing strategies, redirected attention, self-distraction • Context can affect regulation • Swaddling: Middle East, Navajo in U.S.

14. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Describing and Classifying Temperament • Temperament: one’s behavioral style and characteristic emotional response • Chess and Thomas: three basic types • Easy: positive mood, adapts easily • Difficult: negative, cries, adapts slowly • Slow-to-warm-up: low activity level, low adaptability and intensity of mood

15. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition • Focus on shy, subdued, timid child • Inhibition to the unfamiliar • Inhibition shows considerable stability from infancy through early childhood • Continuity shown for both inhibition and lack of inhibition

16. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Rothbart and Bates’s Classification • Extraversion/surgency: • positive affect, impulsivity, sensation seeking (Kegan’s uninhibited here) • Negative affectivity: • easily distressed (Kegan’s inhibited here) • Effortful control (self-regulation): high efforts to control affect

17. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Biological Foundations and Experience • Biological influences: • Physiological characteristics associated with different temperaments • Gender, culture, and temperament • Goodness of Fit and Parenting • Goodness of fit: match between child’s temperament and environmental demands

18. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Parenting and the Child’s Temperament • Attention to and respect for individuality • Structuring the child’s environment • The “difficult child” and packaged parenting programs • Flexible caregiver responses • Avoid “labeling” and self-fulfilling prophecy

19. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? Personality Development • Trust versus mistrust: Erikson’s first stage of development • Infants experience world as either positive or negative outcomes • Continuity not guaranteed

20. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy? The Developing Sense of Self • The Self • Separation and individualization process • Visual self-recognition • Independence • Erikson’s 2nd stage: Autonomy versus shame and doubt • Self-determination and pride or overcontrol creates shame and doubt

21. Amsterdam study Lewis and Brooks-Gunn study 100 80 60 Percent of infants who recognized themselves in a mirror 40 20 0 9-12 21-24 15-18 Age (in months) Development of Self-Recognition in Infancy Two studies on infants and children able to recognize themselves in mirror Fig. 7.4

22. How Do Social Understanding and Attachment Develop in Infancy? Social Orientation/Understanding • Infants motivated to understand the world • Social orientation: perceptions, interpretations • Face-to-face play with caregiver and objects • Locomotion (crawl, walk, run) • Intention, Goal-directed behavior, cooperation (e.g., joint attention)

23. How Do Social Understanding and Attachment Develop in Infancy? Social Orientation/Understanding • Infants motivated to understand the world • Social referencing: • Reading emotional cues from others • Influences exploration of unfamiliar environment • Ability improves after age 2 • Attachment: close emotional bond formed

24. How Do Social Understanding and Attachment Develop in Infancy? Attachment Development • Freud: Infants become attached to person or object giving oral satisfaction • Disproved by Harlow’s research: regardless of which mother fed monkeys, both preferred physical comfort of cloth mother • Erikson: First year is key for attachment, physical comfort plays role here

25. 24 Fed by cloth mother Fed by wire mother . . . . . . 18 Hours per day spent with cloth mother . . Mean hours per day 12 . . 6 . . . . . . . . . . Hours per day spent with wire mother 0 1-5 11-10 21-25 6-10 16-20 Age (days) Harlow’s Results: Contact time with wire and cloth surrogate mothers Fig. 7.6

26. How Do Social Understanding and Attachment Develop in Infancy? Attachment Development • Bowlby’s ethological view: • Biological predisposition • increases chances of survival • Develops in series of phases; preference for humans evolves into partnership with primary caregivers

27. Bowlby’s 4 Phases • Phase 1: birth to 2 months • Responds equally to parents, strangers, siblings; infant cries or smiles • Phase 2: 2 to 7 months • Selective focus and attachment; gradual learning to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar • Phase 3: 7 to 24 months • Specific attachment; actively seeks contact • Phase 4: 24 months on • Considers others’ feelings when forming actions • Formation of internal working model of attachment

28. How Do Social Understanding and Attachment Develop in Infancy? Measuring Attachment • Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: measures infant’s attachment to caregiver • Requires infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions • Securely attached • Insecure avoidant • Insecure resistant • Insecure disorganized

29. Avoidant Secure 70 Resistant 60 50 40 Percentage of infants 30 20 10 0 U.S. Germany Japan Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment: Ainsworth’s strange situation applied to infants in three countries in 1988 Fig. 7.7

30. Some developmentalists believe secure attachment in first year provides important foundation for psychological development Others believe too much emphasis is placed on attachment bond in infancy Ignores diversity of socializing agents and contexts Lab not reflective of natural environment How Do Social Understanding and Attachment Develop in Infancy? The Significance of Attachment

31. How Do Social Understanding and Attachment Develop in Infancy? Caregiving Styles and Attachment

32. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? The Family • The Transition to Parenthood • New parents must adapt to new demands on time, finances, and roles • Babies affect parents’ marriage • Most less satisfied after child is born • Almost 1/3 happier, more interested in relationships, more efficient

33. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? The Family • Reciprocal Socialization is bidirectional • Scaffolding: positive parental behavior supports children’s efforts • Children’s skills increase • Support modified to suit children’s level of development

34. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? The Family • The family as a system • Made up of subsystems defined by gender, generation, and role • Indirect and direct influences from marital relations, parenting, and infant behavior

35. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? The Family • Infant caregiving • Mothers and fathers both competent caregivers, but behave differently • Mothers: center on child-care activities • Fathers: more likely to center on play, rough-and-tumble activities

36. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Child Care Policies Around the World • Five types of parental leave • Maternity leave • Paternity leave • Parental leave • Child-rearing leave • Family leave

37. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Child Care • Variations in child care • Type and quality: • Large centers, elaborate facilities, private homes • Commercial; nonprofit by churches, employers • Professional providers; mothers earning additional monies • Quality linked to stress level, individual child temperament has impact

38. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Child Care • Variations in child care • Child care type varies by ethnicity • African American and Latino • More reliance on family-based care • Grandmothers most important • Latinos least likely to use child care centers • Use of center-based care by African American mothers is substantially increasing

39. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Longitudinal Study of Child Care • Patterns of Use: • High reliance and early entry • By 4 months, nearly 3/4 of infants have had some non-maternal child care • Socioeconomic factors affect amount and type of care • Income level, education • Dependence on mother’s income

40. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Longitudinal Study • Quality of Care • Small group sizes • Low child-adult ratios • Teachers: specialized training, formally educated, experienced • Caregiver sensitivity to children • Children linked to higher competence

41. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Longitudinal Study • Amount of child care • High-quality care and fewer hours in care lead to positive outcomes • Family and parenting influences • Influence not weakened by extensive child care; parents significant influence in children regulating emotions

42. How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy? Longitudinal Study • Strategies for child care • Recognize quality of parenting on your child’s development • Make good parenting decisions • Monitor your child’s development • Take time to find best child care

43. Children 7 The End