Building Classes ( the " ++ " in C++) (Chapter 14)

1. Building Classes(the "++" in C++)(Chapter 14) Representing More Complex Objects 1

2. Problem • Develop a type to model temperatures with various operations such as Fahrenheit/Celsius conversion, input, and output. • However, a temperature object has two attributes • its degrees (a double), • and its scale (a character) • and we can't represent it by a single type provided in C++. • When this happens, we can create our own type by building a ____________ to model the object (temperature) being represented. Other Examples: (Final Lab & Proj.) Coordinate objects: x-coordinate y-coordinate Fraction objects: numerator denominator Time objects: hours minutes seconds AM/PM 2

3. Building a Class We begin by declaring variables to store the attributes of the object being represented (a temperature), and wrap these inside a classdeclaration in Temperature.h: _____________________________ { double myDegrees; char myScale; }; Function prototypes for built-in operations go here ___________ ___________ Note the semicolon Such variables are called the class' __________members(also referred to as instance variablesor attribute variables). For a declarationC obj;where C is a class, the object obj is also called an "instance of C." When learning how to build classes, it helps to pretend that we arethe temperature object ; beginning each attribute name with my helps reinforce this internal perspective 3

4. Information Hiding Classes have a public section and a private section. (In fact, it may have more than one of each.) The public section provides the interface to users of the class; items declared in it are accessible to them. The private section contains implementationdetails. Items declared in it are inaccessible to users of the class and are said to be "hidden." Data members should go in theprivatesectionto prevent programmers from writing programs that access data members directly. "What" a class provides "How" a class provides it Why? e.g., in a Temperature object: set myScale = 'X' In a Fraction object:set myDenominator = 0 So users can't put invalid data in them. Also to allow changes to them in class revisions. 4

5. aTemp myDegrees myScale A New Type We have now created a new type Temperature, so we can use it in a program: #include "Temperature.h" // class Temperature ..._____________________________; The object aTemp can be visualized as follows: ? ? The data members myDegrees and myScale within aTemp are uninitialized. We need a way to put values in them. 5

6. Operations and Messages As of now, our Temperature objects are just data containers (like structs in C) — they have no built-in ("push-button") operations by which users can process them. Instead they have to be "shipped off" to various functions for processing. So, our next task in building a class is to: • Decide what operations to provide • How to implement them This may involve adding new data members 6

7. Operations on a class object are usually implemented as class _____________members(also called ______________). To call a function member, we use the dot operator: object.method() The "pushbutton" operator This can be thought of as the caller sending object a messagenamed method. The definition of a function member details how objectresponds to the message. 7

8. Function Member Example: Output As we have noted, we have no way to put values in the data members of a Temperature object. Normally, function members (called constructors) that make this possible would be the first ones that we add to a class. However, we will instead look at an output operation because it is easier to understand. Lab: Help with debugging other ops. 8

9. __________________________or __________________________ Suppose we want to display the value of a Temperature object aTemp by sending it a display() message: • Using the internal perspective (where I am the Temperature object receiving the message), we have the following specification for the function member display(): • Receive: An ostream object that we'll call out • Output: myDegrees and myScale, via out. • Pass back: out, containing the new values. 9

10. Function Member Prototypes We declare prototypes of function members in the public section of a class: class Temperature { public: __________________________________ const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; • This informs the compiler that class Temperature has a function member named display(), and that Temperature objects should "understand" the display() message. • It also makes thisdisplay() operation accessible to users of our class. 10

11. Function Member Definitions Definition of display(): void ________________________(ostream & out)const { out << myDegrees << ' ' << myScale; } • The function returns nothing, so its return-type is void. • The full name Temperature::display() tells the compiler this is a function member of class Temperature. • This function receives an ostream that it needs to change (by outputting something into it) and pass back, so we need a reference parameter for it. • Function members that are not allowed to change any data members should be declared as constfunction members. 11

12. Definitions of function members usually go in the implementation (.cpp) file. But when they are simple (say, with 6 or fewer operations), they are, for efficiency, usually put in the header file, below the class declaration, and specified as ________ — especially if they are called often. class Temperature{ ... }; // end of class declaration _________void Temperature::display(ostream & out) const { out << myDegrees << ' ' << myScale; } Simple ordinary functions can also be inlined to improve a program's efficiency — see §10.4 Inlining a function allows the compiler to replace calls to it with the actual code of the definition, thus eliminating the overhead of a function call. 12

13. Problem At present, a Temperature declaration Temperature aTemp; leaves aTemp's data members uninitialized. So if we output it, aTemp.display(cout); we cannot expect any meaningful results — rather, "garbage." It would be better if we could be assured that Temperature objects were auto-initialized to some meaningful default value (e.g., 0 C). To accomplish this, we can use a special function member called a _____________________________. 13

14. Constructors A class constructor is a function member whose task is to initialize the class' data members. Because all they do is initialize data members, they don't return anything, and so their specification is often given as a postcondition — a boolean expression that indicates the state of the object after the constructor terminates. Default Constructor Specification: Postcondition: myDegrees == 0 && myScale == 'C'. 14

15. Default Constructor Prototype class Temperature { public: _______________________ void display(ostream & out) const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; • The name of a constructor is always the name of the class(in this case Temperature()). • Since it returns nothing, a constructor has no return type(not even void). • Since they specify the first thing a user of the class needs to know (i.e., how to define class objects), constructor prototypes are usually the first function members listed in the public section of the class. 15

16. Default Constructor Definition // In Temperature.h, after class declaration ______________________________________ { myDegrees = 0; myScale = 'C'; } • As a function member of class Temperature, its full name is Temperature::Temperature(). • And because it is so simple and gets called often, we inline the definition and put it below the class declaration in Temperature.h. 16

17. aTemp myDegrees myScale Object Declarations A programmer can now make declarations like Temperature aTemp; and object aTemp can be visualized as follows: Each declaration of a class object will generatean automatic call to a class constructor. 17

18. Testing // ... documentation // ... other #includes #include "Temperature.h" int main() { Temperature aTemp; aTemp.display(cout); } To test this much, we can write: Execution : 0 C Lab: fractionTester.cpp 18

19. Problem 2 At present, we can only initialize a Temperature object to a default value: Temperature aTemp; The mechanism that makes it possibleto initialize an object to other values isfunction________________, whichallows two different functions to have the _______________. The same name can be used to define different functions, provided each function has a differentsignature (the list of the parameter types). The compiler will determine which function to use from the number and type of arguments in a function call. 19

20. Another Constructor So, to overload the constructor, we just provide a second constructor that differs from all other constructors in at least one parameter type. • But this is easy; we simply have the second constructor — called an ___________________constructor— receive the initial values we want a Temperature object to have via its parameters and use these parameter values to initialize the class' data member. • Explicit-Value Constructor Specification: • Receive: degrees, a double; scale, a char. • Precondition: scale == 'F' || scale == 'C'. • Postcondition: myDegrees == degrees && • myScale == scale. State of the object 20

21. Explicit-Value Constructor Prototype class Temperature { public: Temperature(); Temperature(__________________,________________); void display(ostream & out) const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; 21

22. Explicit-Value Constructor Definition // In Temperature.h, after class declaration inline Temperature::Temperature(doubledegrees, char scale) { assert(scale == 'F' || scale == 'C'); myDegrees =______________; myScale =_____________; } As before, because of its simplicity and constructors get called often, we put this (second) constructor definition in Temperature.h below the class declaration and inline it. 22

23. Defaultconstructor Explicit-value constructor temp1 temp2 myDegrees myDegrees myScale myScale Object Definitions A programmer can now write: Temperature________, _____________________; and temp1 and temp2 are defined as follows: The compiler uses the number of arguments in a declaration to decide which constructor to use in initializing an object. 23

24. Testing // ... documentation // ... other #includes #include "Temperature.h" int main() { Temperature temp1, temp2(98.6, 'F'); temp1.display(cout); cout << endl; temp2.display(cout); } To test this much, we can write: Execution : 0 C 98.6 F 24

25. /*---- Temperature.h ----------------------------------------------- Header file for Temperature class. Operations: Constructors: default and explicit-value display(): output a Temperature object ------------------------------------------------------------------*/ #include <iostream> #include <cassert> class Temperature { public: Temperature(); Temperature(double degrees, char scale); void display(ostream & out) const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; //-- Definition of default constructor inline Temperature::Temperature() { myDegrees = 0; myScale = 'C'; } Our Temperature Class ... so far 25

26. //-- Definition of explicit-value constructor inline Temperature::Temperature(double degrees, char scale) { assert(scale == 'F' || scale == 'C'); myDegrees = degrees; myScale = scale; } //-- Definition of display() inline void Temperature::display(ostream & out) const { out << myDegrees << ' ' << myScale; } /*---- Temperature.cpp --------------------------------------------- Implementation file for Temperature class. ------------------------------------------------------------------*/ //-- STILL EMPTY 26

27. /*---- Temperature.txt --------------------------------------------- Documentation file for Temperature class. Operations: Constructors: default and explicit-value display(): output a Temperature object read(): input a Temperature object ------------------------------------------------------------------*/ class Temperature { public: /*--------------------------------------------------------------- Default constructor Postcondition: myDegrees == 0 && myScale == 'C'. ----------------------------------------------------------------*/ Temperature(); /*--------------------------------------------------------------- Explicit-value constructor Receive: degrees, a double; scale, a char. Precondition: scale == 'F' || scale == 'C'. Postcondition: myDegrees == degrees && myScale == scale. ----------------------------------------------------------------*/ Temperature(double degrees, char scale); 27

28. /*--------------------------------------------------------------- Output function member Receive: out, an ostream. Output: myDegrees and myScale, via out. Passback: out, containing the new values. ----------------------------------------------------------------*/ void display(ostream & out) const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; /*---- tempTester.cpp ------------------------------------------ Driver program to test Temperature class ---------------------------------------------------------------*/ #include <iostream> using namespace std; #include "Temperature.h" int main() { Temperature temp1, temp2(98.6, 'F'); temp1.display(cout); // displays 0 C cout << endl; temp2.display(cout); // displays 98.6 F cout << endl; } Execution : 0 C 98.6 F 28

29. Accessor Functions • The values in the data members of a Temperature object are not accessible to a user of our class. To make them available, we provide function members, called accessor functions, that retrieve these values: class Temperature { public: Temperature(); Temperature(double degrees, char scale); double getDegrees() const; char getScale() const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; const because they only access data members, don't modify them. 29

30. Because they are simple one-line functions, they can be defined in the header file as inline functions. inline double Temperature::getDegrees() const { return myDegrees; } inline char Temperature::getScale() const { return myScale; } Use in a program: Temperature temp1; // ... cout << "Its degrees is " << temp1.getDegrees() << " and its scale is " << temp1.getScale() << endl; 30

31. Input It is also useful to be able to input a value for a Temperature object. From the internal perspective, we can specify this task as follows. • Specification: Receive: in, an istream. Precondition: in contains valid degrees and scale values. Input: the degrees and scale values from in. Passback: in, minus its degrees and scale values. Postcondition: myDegrees == degrees &&myScale == scale. 31

32. Input: Prototype class Temperature { public: Temperature(); Temperature(double degrees, char scale); void read(istream & in); void display(ostream & out) const; double getDegrees() const; char getScale() const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; Note that unlike output, the input operation changes the class data members, and so is not a const function. 32

33. Definition void Temperature::read(istream & in) { double degrees; char scale; in >> degrees >> scale; scale = toupper(scale); // Change 'f', 'c' // Check precondition assert(scale == 'C' || scale == 'F'); myDegrees = degrees; // Valid input, so myScale = scale; // set data members } Temporary holding area for input so we can validate it before putting it in the data members • Input is an easy place for errors to occur, so always carefully check the preconditions of an input function. • We put this in Temperature.cpp rather than inline it like we did display() since it's more complicated. 33

34. Testing // ... documentation // ... other #includes #include "Temperature.h" int main() { cout << "\nEnter a temperature: "; Temperature temp3; temp3.read(cin); // read it temp3.display(cout); // echo it back cout << endl; } Execution : Enter a temperature: 32F32 F 34

35. Conversion Functions • To find the Celsius or Fahrenheit equivalent of a Temperature object, we want to be able to send it a toCelsius() or toFahrenheit() message: Temperature temp1, temp2; // ... temp2 = temp1.toCelsius();// ... temp1 = temp2.toFahrenheit(); From the internal perspective, our specifications are: toCelsius(): Return the Celsius equivalent of myself. toFahrenheit(): Return the Fahrenheitequivalent of myself. 35

36. Conversion-function Prototypes class Temperature { public: Temperature(); Temperature(double degrees, char scale); void read(istream & in); void display(ostream & out) const; double getDegrees() const; char getScale() const; Temperature toCelsius() const; Temperature toFahrenheit() const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; These operations won't alter the class data members, and so are declared as const function members. 36

37. Conversion-function Definitions Temperature Temperature::toCelsius() const { switch (myScale) { case 'C': return Temperature(myDegrees, 'C'); case 'F': return Temperature((myDegrees - 32)/1.8, 'C'); default: cerr << "\nInvalid scale: " << myScale << " in Celsius().\n" << endl; exit(1); } } In Temperature.cpp Note how our explicit-value constructor is used to build the return values. Temperature Temperature::toFahrenheit() const { switch (myScale) { case 'F': return Temperature(myDegrees, 'F'); case 'C': return Temperature(1.8 * myDegrees + 32), 'F'); default: cerr << "\nInvalid scale: " << myScale << " in Celsius().\n" << endl; exit(1); } } 37

38. Testing #include "Temperature.h" int main() { cout << "\nEnter a temperature: "; Temperature temp1, temp2; temp1.read(cin); temp2 = temp1.toCelsius(); temp2.display(cout); // or we can chain the messages together: // temp1.toCelsius().display(cout); cout << endl; temp1 = temp2.toFahrenheit(); temp1.display(cout); cout << endl; } We test the correctness of this function in the tester program on slides 55-56. 38

39. An Arithmetic Operator:  (subtraction) Nearly any C++ operator  can be overloaded for a new type by defining a function named operator()for that type. For example, if a and b are ints, we could write the expression a + bas the function calloperator+(a, b). If a and b are objects of type C (where C is a class), two different versions of this function are possible; for example, a.operator+(b),if operator+() is a function member of C operator+(a, b), an ordinary function otherwise For our Temperature class, either method could be used to define a subtraction operation, but we will use the first. So we have the following internal specification for our function operator-(): Receives: a Temperature object temp2 Returns: The difference between myself and temp2 39

40. Prototype class Temperature { public: Temperature(); Temperature(double degrees, char scale); void read(istream & in); void display(ostream & out) const; double getDegrees() const; char getScale() const; Temperature toCelsius() const; Temperature toFahrenheit() const; Temperature operator-(const Temperature & temp2) const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; Since this operation won't alter the class data members, it is declared as a const function member. 40

41. Definition Temperature Temperature::operator- (const Temperature & temp2) const { Temperature result; if (myScale == 'F') { result.myDegrees = myDegrees - temp2.toFahrenheit().getDegrees(); result.myScale = 'F'; } else { result.myDegrees = myDegrees - temp2.toCelsius().getDegrees(); result.myScale = 'C'; } return result; } In Temperature.cpp We test the correctness of this function in the tester program on slides 55-56. 41

42. The Output Operator << temp1.display(cout);cout << endl; • Instead of writing: it would be more convenient if we could write: cout << temp1 << endl; that is, overload << for our Temperature class. We can do this by defining the function operator<<()for it. However, because the left operand (cout) is an ostream object and not a Temperature object (and we are unable to modify the ostream class), we cannot implement this operation as a function member of the Temperature class. So we define it as an ordinary function with two parameters, an ostream and a Temperature; i.e., cout << temp1 is the same as operator<<(cout, temp1) 42

43. Definition // In Temperature.h, after the class declaration inline ostream& operator<<(ostream & out, const Temperature & temp) { temp.display(out); return out; } Note: No Temperature:: • Notes about this definition: • operator<<() is not a function member, so: • It is not prototypedinside the class declaration • It's name is not qualified by Temperature:: • Because of it's simplicity, we inline this definition and put it below the class declaration in Temperature.h. 43

44. The function must modify the actual ostream it receives via out (because output is inserted into it ), so outmust be a reference parameter. • Chaining << operations together as in • cout << temp1 << endl; • is executed as a composition of function calls: • operator<<( operator<<(cout,temp1), endl); • This means that the first function call must return the ostream out to which it is sending output so the second function call can use it. However, the normal • function-return mechanism makes a copy of what is returned and we need to return out, not a copy of out. This copying mechanism can be turned off by making the function's return type a reference (ostream &). 44

45. The Input Operator >> temp1.read(cin); temp2.read(cin); • Similar to output, it would be more convenient if instead of to input two Temperature objects, we could write: cin>> temp1>> temp2; And we can do this in a manner similar to that for output by defining an ordinary function named operator>> thatuses our read() function member. // In Temperature.h, after the class declaration inline istream & operator>>(istream & in, Temperature & temp) { temp.read(in); return in; } One difference: temp isn't a constantreference parameter since it must be changed. 45

46. Our Complete Temperature Class /*---- Temperature.h ----------------------------------------------- Header file for Temperature class. Operations: Constructors: default and explicit-value display(): output a Temperature object read(): input a Temperature object getDegrees(), getScale(): accessors toCelsuis(): Fahrenheit to Celsius converter toFahrenheit(): Celsuis to Fahrenheit converter <<, >> : output and input operators ------------------------------------------------------------------*/ #include <iostream> #include <cassert> class Temperature { public: Temperature(); Temperature(double degrees, char scale); void display(ostream & out) const; void read(istream & in); double getDegrees() const; char getScale() const; Temperature toCelsius() const; Temperature toFahrenheit() const; Temperature operator-(const Temperature & temp2) const; private: double myDegrees; char myScale; }; 46

47. //-- Definition of default constructor inline Temperature::Temperature() { myDegrees = 0; myScale = 'C'; } //-- Definition of explicit-value constructor inline Temperature::Temperature(double degrees, char scale) { assert(scale == 'F' || scale == 'C'); myDegrees = degrees; myScale = scale; } //-- Definition of display() inline void Temperature::display(ostream & out) const { out << myDegrees << ' ' << myScale; } //-- Definition of getDegrees() inline double Temperature::getDegrees() const { return myDegrees; } //-- Definition of getScale() inline char Temperature::getScale() const { return myScale; } 47

48. //-- Defininition of << inline ostream & operator<<(ostream & out, const Temperature & temp) { temp.display(out); return out; } //-- Defininition of >> inline istream & operator>>(istream & in, Temperature & temp) { temp.read(in); return in; } /*---- Temperature.cpp --------------------------------------------- Implementation file for Temperature class. ------------------------------------------------------------------*/ #include <iostream> using namespace std; #include "Temperature.h" 48

49. //-- Definition of read() void Temperature::read(istream & in) { double degrees; char scale; in >> degrees >> scale; scale = toupper(scale); // Check for 'f', 'c' // Check precondition assert(scale == 'C' || scale == 'F'); myDegrees = degrees; // Valid input, so myScale = scale; // set data members } //-- Definition of toCelsius() Temperature Temperature::toCelsius() const { switch (myScale) { case 'C': return Temperature(myDegrees, 'C'); case 'F': return Temperature((myDegrees - 32)/1.8, 'C'); default: cerr << "\nInvalid scale: " << myScale << " in Celsius().\n" << endl; exit(1); } } 49

50. //-- Definition of toFahrenheit() Temperature Temperature::toFahrenheit() const { switch (myScale) { case 'F': return Temperature(myDegrees, 'F'); case 'C': return Temperature(myDegrees * 1.8 + 32, 'F'); default: cerr << "\nInvalid scale: " << myScale << " in toFahrenheit().\n" << endl; exit(1); } } //-- Definition of operator-() Temperature Temperature::operator-(const Temperature & temp2) const { Temperature result; if (myScale == 'F') { result.myDegrees = myDegrees - temp2.toFahrenheit().getDegrees(); result.myScale = 'F'; } else { result.myDegrees = myDegrees - temp2.toCelsius().getDegrees(); result.myScale = 'C'; } return result; } 50