Development

1. Development Unit 13, Chapter 4 page 139

2. Prenatal Development and The Newborn Pg 139-144

3. Conception • Step One (females) • Ovary releases egg: all eggs present at birth, released during puberty • Men make sperm starting at puberty • Step Two (intercourse) • 200 million+ sperm are released • Step Three (conception) • Sperm meets egg, where digestive enzymes break down the outer coating of the egg cell • Sperm enters, egg blocks out other sperm and pulls in the one successful sperm

4. Prenatal Development • Zygote • Fertilized eggs • <50% survive past the first two weeks!! • ~100 cells • Beginnings of differentiation (specialization) • Embryo • 10 days post conception, cells attach to the uterus • Outer cellsplacenta • Inner cellsembryo • By ~6 weeks the heart begins to beat

5. Prenatal Development: Fetus • Nine weeks post conception • Looks distinctly human • 6th month: organs have developed • Fetus can respond to sound • Responds to mother’s voice (and then prefers this voice immediately following birth)

7. Effects of the Environment • Placenta • Transfers nutrients/oxygen • Screens harmful substances • Tetratogens: Certain viruses and drugs that can pass through the placenta (e.g. heroin, AIDS)

8. Effects of the Environment • Drugs • Mother consumes heroin, baby is born a heroin addict • Smokingreduced blood oxygen and nicotine to the fetus • Heavy smokers: fetus may receive fewer nutrients, born underweight, at risk for health problems • Alcohol • Any amount of alcohol can damage the fetus brain • Heavy drinkingbirth defects/mental retardation • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: small disproportioned head, lifelong brain abnormalities • Leading cause of mental retardation • 40% alcoholic mothers who drink during pregnancy have FAS babiers

9. Newborns • Come equipped with reflexes • Move limbs to escape pain • Turn head to breath better • Rooting: when something touches the cheek they turn it’s head looking for a nipple • Sucking • Babies prefer sights and sounds that facilitate social responsiveness • Babies turn to human noises, stare longer at human faces • Babies recognize mother’s sound/smell

10. Infancy and Childhood Pg 144-164

11. Brain Development • Maturation: standardized growth processes • Brain Development • You are born with peak number of brain cells • Neural network grows over time • Age 3-6 frontal lobe network grows most quickly • Association areas of the cortex are last to develop • Pathways supporting language and agilitay develop into puberty • Puberty: pruning occurs, which cuts excess pathways and strengthens used one

12. Motor Development • Rollsitcrawlwalk (standardized order) • Timing differences in development • Age 11 mo: 25% walk; 1 year: 50% walk; 15 mo: 90% walk • Factors • Nature: Putting to bed on back delays crawl age, but not walk age • Nurture: twins develop around the same age • Brain must develop before motor control can follow

14. Memory • Infant amnesia • Most memories start around 3-years-old • Memory organization changes at age 3 or 4 • Correlates with a sense of self and cortex maturation • Preverbal memories are hard to translate into verbal memories • Associations can be learned pre-three • Recognition isn’t necessarily conscious, but bodily response indicates it occurs

15. Cognitive Development: Piaget • Jean Piaget: stage view of development • Started off writing intelligence test questions • Believed children learned, but learned differently • Children (and adults) are constantly trying to learn to understand the world: based on the notion of schema

16. Schemas • Schemas are categories by which we organize information • E.g. small, furry, four-legged creature=dog • Assimilate • Interpret new information in terms of existing schema • Ex? • Accommodate • Adjust existing schema to fit new information • Ex?

17. Piaget Stages of Development • Sensorimotor: 0-2 • Object permanence, stranger anxiety • Preoperational: 2-6/7 • Pretend play, egocentrism, language development • Concrete Operational: 7-11 • Conservation, mathematical transformations • Formal Operational: 12+ • Abstract logic, mature moral reasoning Chart on page 148!!

18. Sensorimotor Stage: 0-2 years • Interact with the world through sensory and motor interaction • Can only consider the here and now • Lack object permanence: if I can’t see it, then it’s not there (e.g. peekaboo) • Piaget: said it is a stage; 8 mo then we get object permanence, modern psychologists say its continuous • See page 149

19. Preoperational Stage: 2-6/7 years • Lack ability to handle mental operations • Lack conservation • Volume remains the same even with changes in dimensions • Display egocentrism • Struggle to perceive things from other’s p.o.v. • E.g. child covers his eyes: “you can’t see me” • Theory of Mind: ability to read other’s intentions • Development of teasing, empathy, persuasion, predictions, thoughtsfeelings, etc. • Autistic children and children with deaf parents struggle with this • Develop verbal thinking skills: words become support for other internal cognition

20. Concrete Operational Stage: 6/7-11 years • Have conservation • Can complete basic math problems with greater ease and speed

21. Formal Operational Stage: 12+ • Can think abstractly • Can consider hypotheticals • Utilize systematic reasoning • Some of these skills begin earlier than Piaget supposed • Moral of the story: Piaget had good, fairly accurate ideas, but things are far more continuous than he would have guessed

22. Social Development: Attachment • Attachment: The emotional tie with another person • Seeking closeness regularly • Distress upon separation • Who do children become attached to? • Caregiverparent • Stranger Anxiety: starts about 8 months, children fear separation from parent and are distressed by unfamiliar people • Peaks at 13 mo

23. Elements of Attachment • Body Contact • Nourishment or comfort? • Harry Harlow: tests the concept on baby monkeys. • Baby monkey preferred the cuddly “mom” not the food providing mom. • Responsiveness • Parent acknowledgement of child followed by appropriate response. • Responsiveness is a key predictor of secure or insecure attachment http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=ST0pUHcVjzI

24. Elements of Attachment • Familiarity • Familiarcontent • Humans do not imprint during a critical period • Imprint: Process when animals form strong attachments during a critical period soon after birth • Critical Period: The optimal time for specific developments based on heightened sensitivity to outside stimuli/environmental affects. Usually follows shortly after birth

25. Types of Parenting • Authoritarian: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=Zh1zIx-qidE • Warmth: Low • Communication: ParentChild • Maturity: High expectations of child • Discipline: Strict and often physical • Permissive: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=K-3GfzozLL8 • Warmth: High • Communication: ChildParent • Maturity: Low expectations of child • Discipline: Lax

26. Optimal Parenting • Authoritative • Children have self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-reliance through allowing children to develop a sense of control • Warmth: High • Communication: ParentChild and ChildParent • Maturity: Moderate expectations of child • Discipline: Moderate, marked by clear rules with enforcement and explanation • BUT! Correlation does not equal causation • Children’s traits influence parenting • Genes for social competence

27. High Demands Low Responsiveness

28. Effects of Attachment • Secure Attachment • Leads to social competence: confidence, outgoing, persistent in solving challenging tasks • Identity Development • Insecure Attachment • Withdrawn and frightened • Clingy • Adoption • Neglected children adopted into healthy environments between 6-16 months show no negative effects of neglect

30. Deprivation of Attachment • Those raised without social interaction become aggressive or fearful adults • Most abusers were abused, but most who are abused do not become abusers • If there is no break from the abusive treatment, then they do carry on these abusive tendencies • Long term affects of terror • Nightmares, depression, substance abuse, binge eating • Permanent changes in brain/neurochemistry: Sluggish serotonin response

31. Disrupted Attachment • Institutionalization >8 mo. Produces lasting emotional scars • Placed into stable and positive environments, most infants recover from separation distress • Adoption b/w 6-16 mo produces little if any long term problems • Post age 2 there is risk for attachment problems • Foster care can cause significant problems (lack of stability) • Adults also suffer when attachment bonds are broken • Day Care • Good care is okay, poor care is a problem • Children 4.5-6 yr who spend most time in day care are advanced in thinking/language but higher definance/aggression • Other factors are more important • Many working mom’s spend higher quality time with kids when they are home

32. Self-Concept • By age 12 most children have a self-concept • Self-awareness may begin with self-awareness • Starts at about 6 mo., when we recognize ourselves in the mirror, through 1 year • By about 15-18 months babies begin to show understanding that the image in the mirror is themselves • Strengthens during childhood • School aged children describe themselves in terms of the their characteristics, group membership, etc. • Understand personal strengths and weaknesses and traits they wish they had • Positive self-concept are more confident, independent, optimistic, assertive, and sociable • Positive versus realistic?

33. Measuring Attachment • Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation • Child’s reaction determined type of attachment • Secure • Ambivalent-insecure • Avoidant-insecure • Disorganized-insecure http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s608077NtNI

36. Reasons for Attachment • Mother’s Behaviors (Nurture) • Relaxed, attentive, sensitive parents  versus stress-prone, inattentive • Children parent like their parents • Mother versus Father • Mother care has been the focus, but father presence is super important! • Children with father’s present achieve more in school, holding everything else constant • Genetics (Nature) • Temperament: difficult versus easy babies • Mother care seems to be more indicative

37. Adolescence Page 164-175

38. What is adolescence? • Time between childhood and adulthood • Starts with puberty ends with independence

39. Physical Development: Puberty • Develops primary and secondary sex characteristics • Primary: Reproductive organs • Secondary: Non-reproductive sexual characteristics • Girls about 11 y.o., boys 13 y.o. • Girls: period @ ~12 (menarche), breast development @ ~10 • Boys: ejaculating @~14 • Attraction begins a year or two before puberty

40. Physioloical Brain Development • Build network connections • Pruning • Growth of myelin in the frontal lobe • Limbic system continues to develop

41. Cognitive Development • Reasoning • Self-focused, believes his experience is unique • Develop abstract reasoning • Morality • Kohlberg: we pass through three levels of moral development • Preconventional morality (<9 yo avoid punishment, gain reward), conventional morality (cares for others, follows rules b/c they are rules), postconventional morality (based in ethics) • Moral feelings preced moral reasoning: social intuitionist

42. Social Development: Erik Erikson • German born (June 15, 1902) • Studied Physiology focusing on child development • Worked with Anna Freud (daughter of Sigmund Freud) • Adaptation of Freud’s theory of identity • Famous for the eight stage model of development and concept of identity crisis. • Believed lives were legacies

43. Stage theory of identity development • Run over the course of a lifetime • Touch on biological, social, situational, and personal influences • Each stage is marked by crisis • Child must “adaptively” or “maladaptively” cope with the conflict • Respond adaptively: acquire strengths needed for next developmental stage • Respond maladaptively: less likely to be able to adapt to later problems • Virtue: Motivating characteristics and beliefs, which are a product of successful resolution of each crisis

44. Stage one: Trust v Mistrust • Age: approx. birth-1 year old • Key determinant is the quality of the parent-child relationship (attachment!) • Caregiver meets needs: trustcurious, social, and popular later in life • Caregiver does not meet needs: no trust • Virtue: Hope • Belief our desires will be satisfied • Confidence • In old age: appreciation for interdependence

45. Stage Two: Autonomy v. Shame • Ages: 1-3 years old • Big idea is self-control versus a loss of self esteem (times with potty training) • Self-control stems from giving the child choice • Lack of independence leads to self-doubt and feelings of shame when dealing with others • Virtue: Will • The determination to chose and complete tasks within the demands of society

46. Stage Three: Initiative v. Guilt • Age: approx. 3-5 • Big idea is establishing power • Child expresses initiative in participating in activities • If child is allowed to act on this initiative then there is success • If parents punish child for his initiative then he develops feelings of guilt that follow self-directed behavior • Virtue: Purpose • Courage to envision and achieve goals

47. Stage four: Industry v. Inferiority • Age: 6-11 • Big question: “How can I be good?” • Prepares individuals to be an adult through school and community service. • Foundations: cognitive ability! • Without adult support, child feels inadequate and inferior • Virtue: Competence • Ability to use skill and intelligence to pursue and complete complex tasks

48. Stage Five: Identity v. Role Confusion • Age: approx. 12-18 (may begin later and last longer) • Big question: “Who am I?” • Times with puberty and physical changes (who am I physically) • Prerequisites • Trust (faith in others) • Autonomy (faith in yourself) • Initiative (ability to play) • Industry (ability to work)

49. Identity v. Role Confusion • Many identitiesone final identity • Societal influence? • Role of imagination? • Role of ethnicity? • True crisis and sense of confusion • Virtue: Fidelity • Sincerity, genuineness, sense of duty • Success=competent and confident adult • Greater cognitive and emotional functioning in college students

50. Identity Crisis • Achievement: All good! Explored and found myself • Examples? • Moratorium: All okay! Currently exploring, but still unfound • Examples? • Foreclosure: No exploration, but committed to an identity • Examples? • Diffusion: Ut-oh. No crisis or commitment • Examples?