Sentence Structure

1. Sentence Structure Parts of a sentence Types of sentences: Simple, Complex, Compound

2. Parts of a sentence Subject - tells us which person, animal, place or thing we are talking about; Predicate - tells us what we are saying about that subject. • Mohan ate those mangoes. • Cricket is played in India. • His sister is a teacher in Delhi • Finite Verb - A finite verb is a one-word, two-word, three-word or four-word verb, which acts as a single meaningful sentence part and is essential (necessary) for the existence of the sentence. • Examples of finite verbs are: • eat • is eating • has been eaten • will have been eating

3. Object • This is usually a noun phrase, i.e. a group of words built around a noun or a pronoun. The object answers the question: • finite verb + whom? or • finite verb + what? • as in these examples: • The teacher praised the student. (praised whom?—Answer: the student) • Mohan eats mangoes. (eats what?—Answer: mangoes) • The student and mangoes are the objects in the above sentences.

4. Adverbial • Sentences may contain words or phrases of information about when, where, how or why some action took place or something is in existence. Such words or phrases are called Adverbials. • Here are some examples... • in the morning—She completed the story in the morning. • at the railway station—I met him at the railway station. • brilliantly—She played the piano brilliantly. • for permission to go home—You should meet me for permission to go home.

5. Complement • As the name suggests, a complement is something that completes something. • What does it complete? • A complement completes... • sometimes the meaning of the Subject (subject complement or subjective complement)and • sometimes that of the Object (object complement or objective complement).

6. How does the Complement Complete...? • The Complement completes either by renaming the subject or object or by describing them. • Here are some examples: • Peter is a student.—the phrase a student renames the subject Peter. (Subject Complement) • That girl is clever.—the word clever describes the subject that girl. (Subject Complement) • We made Mohan monitor of the class.—the word monitor renames the object Mohan. (Object Complement) • The people found Susanna innocent.—the word innocent describes the object Susanna. (Object Complement)

7. 5 ways of constructing a sentence • The "S-V" Structure: • Subject + Intransitive Verb +(adverbial): • The boys | jumped | over the wall. • He | sleeps | during lectures. • Birds of the same feather | flock | together.

8. The "S-V-O" Structure: • Subject + transitive verb +object + (adverbial): • She | teaches | English | at the university. • His car | hit | a tree |this morning. • They | will meet | the boss | next Monday.

9. The "S-V-Io-Do" Structure: • Subject + transitive verb +indirect object + direct object + (adverbial): • The woman | gave | her daughter | a gift | on her birthday. • The bank manager | reluctantly granted |the poor farmer |a loan | this morning. • Mr. Mendoza | taught | us | Greek | in those days.

10. The "S-V-Sc" Structure: • Subject + linking verb +subject(ive) complement + (adverbial): • Hannah | was | a teacher | in Delhi last year. • The old man | looks | happy | today. • Those young people | will become | experts | in Physics.

11. The "S-V-O-Oc" Structure: • Subject + transitive verb + object + object(ive) complement + (adverbial): • The PM | appointed | Mr X | a minister | in 2004. • The Inspector | found | the man | innocent | . • The landlord | called | the new tenant | a crook |

12. Finite/Infinite Verbs • Those verbs which change according to words I, we, you, he, she, Anita, and they, are called Finite Verbs. The word 'finite' means 'limited.' Since the words I, we, you, he, etc., can make these verbs change, the power of these verbs must be limited indeed. • They are verbs which do not change. No word in a sentence can impose a change on these verbs. That is why we call them non-finite, which means 'not limited' by other words in a sentence.

13. Example • They like to sing songs. • He likes to sing songs • He is fond of eating mangoes. • They are fond of eating mangoes.

14. Phrase/Clause/Sentence • Sentences, in grammar, are groups of words which make complete sense. A phrase is any group of words, usually consisting of only a few words. It is named sometimes according to the work it does—as in adjective phrase, adverb phrase, noun phrase. Here are a few examples: • It is a pen of green colour. ('of green colour'—adjective phrase, because the phrase describes the noun 'pen'.)  • He has helped a few needy young men. ('a few needy young men'—noun phrase, because this phrase is the object of the verb 'has helped'. If you ask the question 'helped whom?', you get the answer 'a few needy young men'.) • She wrote it in the morning. ('in the morning'—adverb phrase, because this phrase tells us something more about the verb 'wrote'.) • Sometimes a phrase is named depending on a particular word which is at the beginning of it—as in prepositional phrase, participial phrase.Here are some examples: 'of green colour' and 'in the morning' in the examples above are also prepositional phrases because both the phrases begin with a preposition. • I saw him sitting in the front seat. ('sitting in the front seat' is a participial phrase because 'sitting' is a participle)

15. Clause • In a clause (cl), you must find a subject and a predicate.   • a subject is someone or something about which we say something; • a predicate is whatever we say about that someone or something. The most important part of the predicate is a verb.

16. Types of Finite Clause • A finite cl may be independent or dependent. Here are some famous examples of independent cls: The light has gone out of our lives. (Jawaharlal Nehru) • I have a dream. (Martin Luther King Jr.) • The weak can never forgive. (Mahatma Gandhi) • These cls are said to be 'independent' because they are sufficient the way they are. They don't need any other group of words to depend upon. They can stand on their own.Here are some examples of dependent cls.The light that shone in this country was no ordinary light. • You can learn grammar freely here, if you read these pages. • We are declaring to you what we have seen.

17. Types of Dependent Clauses: • They are of three types, depending upon the work they do. See the three numbered sentences above. • in sentence 1—The light that shone in this country was no ordinary light—the cl 'that shone in this country' describes the noun 'light'. Words that describe a noun are called adjectives. Therefore, cls that describe a noun are called 'adjective cls.' They are also known by the name 'relative cls.' • In sentence 2—You can learn grammar freely here, if you read these pages—the cl 'if you read these pages' tells us something more about verb 'can learn'. Words that tell us something more about verbs are called adverbs. Therefore, cls which do the same job are called adverb cls. • In sentence 3—We are declaring to you what we have seen—if we ask the question, "are declaring what?", we get the answer 'what we have seen'. A word which has this kind of relationship to a verb is called an object. To be an object is the privilege of nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, and noun cls. So, 'what we have seen' is a noun cl.

18. What is a sentence? • It is a single or a group of connected finite clauses, from among which at least one clause is a finite independent clause.It can be a "single" clause. • Example: A man had two sons.A single clause (as above) is sufficient for a sentence since it is a finite independent clause. • It can be "a group of connected clauses".Example: After he had collected his share of the property, the younger son left for a distant place and there (he) wasted his money on a life of debauchery.There are three clauses and two connecting words (after, and) in this example. • When two clauses are connected, they may have either a relationship of equality or one of dependence. The 'equal rank' connection:(a)   'the son left for a distant place'; (b)   'there (he) wasted his money on a life of debauchery.'The connector 'and' joins these two clauses.The connection of 'dependence':The clause, (a)   'after he had collected his share of the property' depends on the clause (b)   'the younger son left for a distant place'.

19. There should be "at least one finite independent clause."This is both a necessary and sufficient condition. You may have any number of clauses, but at least one of them needs to be an independent finite clause. You may have more than one independent clause. It does not matter.It doesn't also matter whether there are non-finite clauses or not. They are not essential.

20. Types of Sentences: • The various types are Simple, Complex and Compound. • A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. Some students like to study in the mornings. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

21. Compound Sentence • A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: FANBOYS.) • Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma. • I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.  • He played football, so Maria went shopping.  • He played football, for Maria went shopping.

22. Complex Sentences • A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. • When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.  • The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error. • The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow. • After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies. 

23. COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES • sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause.  • The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics. • The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf. • The house which Abraham  Lincoln was born in is still standing. • The town where I grew up is in the United States.

24. Transitive/Intransitive Verbs • Transitive verbs take direct objects. The vast majority of verbs in English are transitive. • Examples: I took my books to class.We played chess last night. • Notice that transitive verbs always take objects. You will always be able to ask a question beginning with 'What' or 'Whom'. • Examples: • I paid the bill last week. - What did you pay?She studies Russian. - What does she study?

25. Intransitive Verbs • Intransitive verbs do not take direct objects. • Examples: • Peter's situation improved.They slept peacefully. • You can recognize that a verb is intransitive because it does not have a passive form. Examples: • Jack sits in the corner when he reads. NOT The corner is sat when Jack reads.Peter arrived early. NOT Early was arrived Peter.

26. Transitive AND Intransitive • Some verbs with multiple meanings are transitive or intransitive depending on their usage. The verb 'run' is a good example. When used in the sense of physical exercise, 'run' is intransitive. • Helen ran every weekend when she was at college. • BUT • 'Run' used in the sense of managing a company is transitive. • Jennifer runs TMX Inc.

27. Subject verb agreement Rules • Rule 1: Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb.   • Example:My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today. • Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor require a singular verb as in Rule 1.   • Examples:Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.

28. Rule 3. When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor, put it second and follow it with the singular verb am.   • Example:Neither she nor I am going to the festival. • Rule 4. When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.   • Example:The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf. • Rule 5. When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.   • Example:Neither Jenny nor the others are available.

29. Rule 6. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.   • Example:A car and a bike are my means of transportation. • Rule 7. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides, or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb.   • Examples:The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly. • Rule 8. The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.   • Examples:Each of the girls sings well. • NOTE: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when the meaning is each one.

30. Rule 9. With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder —look at the noun in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb. • Examples:Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.Pie is the object of the preposition of. • Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.Pies is the object of the preposition. • One-third of the city is unemployed. • One-third of the people are unemployed. • Rule 10. When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.   • Examples:Neither of them is available to speak right now. Either of us is capable of doing the job. • Rule 11. The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject follows the verb.   • Examples:There are four hurdles to jump. • There is a high hurdle to jump.

31. Rule 12. Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.   • Examples: • Ten dollars is a high price to pay. • Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense. • Rule 13. Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So, if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.   • Examples: • Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports.The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular verb writes. • He is one of the men who does/do the work.The word in front of who is men, which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.

32. Rule 14. Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence.   • Examples:The staff is in a meeting.Staff is acting as a unit here. • The staff are in disagreement about the findings.The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example. • The sentence would read even better as:The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.

33. Direct/Indirect • Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech) • Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word. • For example: • She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations." • or • "Today's lesson is on presentations," she said.

34. Indirect Speech • Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word. • When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.

35. For example: • Direct speech, - "I'm going to the cinema.” • Indirect speech - He said he was going to the cinema. • Tense change • As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense

36. Examples Present simple - She said, "It's cold.” changes to Past simple She said it was cold. Present continuous - She said, "I'm teaching English online." changes to Past continuous - She said she was teaching English online.

37. Present perfect simple - She said, "I've been on the web since 1999." changes to Past perfect simple - She said she had been on the web since 1999. Present perfect continuous - She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years." changes to Past perfect continuous - She said she had been teaching English for seven years.

38. Past simple - She said, "I taught online yesterday." changes to Past perfect - She said she had taught online yesterday. Past continuous - She said, "I was teaching earlier." changes to Past perfect continuous - She said she had been teaching earlier.

39. Past perfect - She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived." changes to Past perfect - NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when he arrived. Past perfect continuous - She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes." changes to Past perfect continuous - NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

40. Modal verb forms also sometimes change: • Will changes to Would • Can changes to Could • Must changes to Had to • Shall changes to should • May changes to might • There is no change to – could, would, should, might, ought to

41. Examples • She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow.“ • She said she would teach English online tomorrow. • She said, "I can teach English online." • She said she could teach English online. • She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online.“ • She said she had to have a computer to teach English online. • She said, "What shall we learn today?“ • She asked what we should learn today. • She said, "May I open a new browser?“ • She asked if she might open a new browser.

42. Using Present Tense • You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true i.e. my name has always been and will always be Lisa so:- • My name is Lisa", she said. • She said her name was Lisa. • or • She said her name is Lisa. • You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event. • Next week's lesson is on reported speech ", she said. • She said next week's lesson is on reported speech.

43. Time Change • If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting. • For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time and place of reporting. • "Today's lesson is on presentations.“ • She said yesterday's lesson was on presentations. (+ 24 HOURS)

44. Expressions of time if reported on a different day • this (evening) › that (evening) • today › yesterday ... • these (days) › those (days) • now › then • (a week) ago › (a week) before • last weekend › the weekend before last / the previous weekend • here › there • next (week) › the following (week) • tomorrow › the next/following day

45. In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there). • For example:- • At work At home "How long have you worked here?" • She asked me how long I'd worked there.

46. Pronoun Change • In reported speech, the pronoun often changes. • For example: • "I teach English online." • She said she teaches English online. • Reporting Verbs • Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect speech. • We use asked to report questions:- • For example: I asked Gita what time the lesson started. • We use told with an object. • For example: Rajni told me she felt tired. • Note - Here me is the object. • We usually use said without an object. • For example: Lisa said she was going to teach online.

47. Use of 'That' in reported speech • In reported speech, the word that is often used. • For example: He told me that he lived in Greenwich. • However, that is optional. • For example: He told me he lived in Greenwich. • Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if. • For example: He asked me if I would come to the party.

48. If said is used with an object we must include to ; • For example: Manoj saidto me that he'd never been to China. • Note - We usually use told. • For example: Manoj told me that he'd never been to China. • There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told and asked.

49. The other verbs • accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained, denied, explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought. • Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative. • For example: • He asked me to come to the party:- • He invited me to the party. • He begged me to come to the party. • He ordered me to come to the party. • He advised me to come to the party. • He suggested I should come to the party.