Grammar Bite A: Verb functions and classes

1. Verbs Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written EnglishBiber; Conrad; Leech (2009, p.102-147) Verbs provide the focal point of the clause. The main verb in a clause determines the other clause elements that can occur and specifies a meaning relation among those elements. However, there are many different kinds of verbs, including lexical v. auxiliary verbs, different semantic classes, and single-word v. multi-word verbs.

2. Grammar Bite A: Verb functions and classes • Verbs perform two major functions in clauses: main verbs v. auxiliary verbs • Main verbs are the central element in a clause • Auxiliary verbs qualify the meaning of the main verb • Verb forms can be grouped into three major classes according to their ability to function as main verbs or auxiliary verbs • Lexical verbs (e.g. run, eat, think) function only as main verbs • Primary verbs (be, have, do) can function as both auxiliary and main verbs • Modal verbs (e.g. can, could) function only as auxiliary verbs • Lexical verbs are much more common than primary verbs or modal verbs • Lexical verbs are most common in conversation and fiction

3. Grammar Bite B: Single-word lexical verbs • Lexical verbs fall into seven major semantic categories: activity verbs (work), communication verbs (write), mental verbs (wonder), causative verbs (require), verbs of occurrence (die) , verbs of existence or relationship (stay), and verbs of aspect (stop). • Many lexical verbs have more than one meaning. • Twelve verbs are especially common in English. Their main uses fall into three types: • Activity verbs: get, go, make, come, take, give • Mental verbs: know, think, see, want, mean • Communication verb: say • In conversation, these twelve verbs are extremely common. Written registers like academic prose tend to use a wider range of different verbs.

4. Grammar Bite C: Lexical verbs: structures and patterns • Two areas are important in the structure of lexical verbs: • Their inflectional morphology, which marks person, tense, aspect and voice. • Their derivational morphology, which shows how verbs have been created. • In their inflectional morphology, most verbs occur with regular suffixes • Many of the most common verbs have irregular morphology. • Some verbs allow both regular and irregular morphology. • New verbs can be formed with derivational morphology • The prefix re- is frequently used for forming new words. • The suffix –ize is also frequently used for forming new words. • 4 derivational suffixes are common/ used with similar meanings. (ize) • The main verb determines the other elements that are necessary for the clause – i.e. the valency pattern • There are 5 major valency patterns: intransitive, monotransitive... • Many verbs can occur with more than one valency pattern, and they often have different meanings with each pattern... different frequencies

5. Grammar Bite D: Multi-word lexical verbs • There are three major types of multi-word verb: phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs. • Multi-word combinations can also be free combinations. • Phrasal verbs consist of a verb + adverbial particle; they can be intransitive or transitive • Phrasal verbs are especially frequent in conversation and fiction. The most common verbs express physical activities (e.g. come on) • A few phrasal verbs are especially common in academic prose (e.g. carry out) • Prepositional verbs consist of a verb + preposition. They can have one or two objects. • Prepositional verbs are common in all registers. • Prepositional verbs with activity and communication meanings are especially common in conversation (e.g. look at) • Passive voice prepositional verbs are especially common in academic prose. They have causative or existence meanings. • Phrasal-prepositional verbs consist of a verb + particle + preposition • Like phrasal verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs are especially frequent in conversation and fiction. The most common verbs express physical activity (e.g. get on with) • There are also other kinds of multi-word verb constructions that occur with idiomatic meanings (e.g. bear in mind, make do, and take time)

6. Grammar Bite E: Primary verbs • The three primary verbs – be, have, and do – can serve as both main verbs and auxiliary verbs. They differ, however, in their specific functions. • As copula (a main verb), be is the most common copular verb in English • As an auxiliary verb, be marks progressive aspect and passive voice • As a main verb, have is one of the most common lexical verbs in English • It has a particularly wide range of meanings • As an auxiliary, have marks perfect aspect • As a main verb, do is a general transitive verb of action (do work) • It often combines with a noun phrase to form idiomatic expressions (e.g. do the dishes) • As a main verb, do can also function as a transitive pro-verb (do it) or an intransitive pro-verb (e.g. I must have done) • As an auxiliary verb, do is used in the do-support construction for forming negation and questions (e.g. Didn’t you know?) • Auxiliary do is also used for emphatic meaning (e.g. Oh do shut up!)

7. Grammar Bite F: Copular verbs • Copular verbs are used to express a relationship between the subject of the clause and an attribute. (You’re very stupid) • Copular verbs usually take an obligatory subject predicative. • Some copular verbs can also occur with an obligatory adverbial. (I was in the kitchen) • Many different verbs can function as copulas. These verbs can be grouped into two major categories: current copular verbs and result copular verbs. • Current copular verbs express states of existence or sensory perceptions (e.g. be, fell) • Result copular verbs express the result of a process of change (e.g. become, turn out) • The copular verbs differ in their meanings and in the complements that they can take. (BE- characterizing “Tomorrow could be sunny” – BE – identifying “That’s our house”.) • There are highly systematic patterns of use associated with copular verbs + complements (come alive, come clear – recurring adjectives)

8. Teacher – Alec, what is a synonym ? It’s a word I can’t spell that means the same as one I can. Teacher – Today we are going to discuss the heart, kidneys, liver and lungs. Alec – Oh no. I hate organ recitals. Principal – All the teachers complain about you, boy. Can you imagine why? Alec – No sir! I haven’t done anything! Principal – You’ve got it exactly right, boy. Drama teacher – I told you last week you were too young to join the drama club. Alec – Yes sir. But I’m a week older now. Time for a gag and some analysis!