CONCRETE

1. CONCRETE by Ikmalzatul Abdullah

2. Introduction • A mixture of cement, water and aggregate which takes the shape of its mould and when cured at a suitable temperature and humidity, forms a solid mass. • Variations in the appearance of concrete surfaces results from: • Materials; grey, white or colored cement. Color, shape and grading of aggregates. • Formwork profiles and textures. • Work to surfaces after casting, varying from light spraying and brushing of freshly cast concrete.

3. Dense Concrete • The quality of concrete varies considerably and it is important to understand the factors which make for good and consistent quality. • In short these are: suitable cement, aggregate and water. Thoroughly mixed in proportions which make possible the lowest water: cement and cement:aggregate ratios consistent with through compaction. • Drying must be prevented and a sufficient temperature maintained until the required strength attained. • Very broadly, for any given type of aggregate, high density in concrete is associated with high strength, hardness, durability, imperviousness, frost resistance and thermal conductivity.

4. Properties of Hardened Concrete • Strength properties • Permeability • Chemical resistance • Frost resistance • Resistance to abrasion • Resistance of concrete to fire • Thermal movement • Moisture movement • Appearance

5. Strength Properties • Higher early strengths are obtained by using special cements, or by steam curing Portland cement concrete, and provided concrete is fully compacted strength at all ages increases as the water:cement ratio of the mix is reduced.

6. Permeability • Concrete which is made with a low water:cement ratio and is very thoroughly compacted has good resistance to the absorption of water. • Admixtures can sometimes contribute to impermeability, but no concrete is completely impervious to water vapor.

7. Chemical Resistance • The chemical resistance of Ordinary Portland cement concretes increases with crushing strength, but special cements and sometimes special aggregates are needed where conditions are severe.

8. Frost Resistance • Concrete may be damage by expansion of ice crystal, which are most likely to form in capillary pores or cracks, resulting initially from mixing water which was surplus to that required to hydrate the cement.

9. Resistance to Abrasion • Depends upon the hardness of the aggregate particles and on the ability of the mortar matrix to retain them.

10. Resistance of Concrete to Fire • Loss of strength is less with leaner mixes and with Portland blast furnace cement. • High alumina cements with crushed firebrick can classed as refractory concrete. • Loss of strength is considerably less where aggregates which do not contain free silica (limestone and furnace formed aggregates) are used. • Low density in cellular and lightweight aggregate concrete improves fire resistance. • The survival of concrete in fire depends upon the protection afforded to the steel reinforcement by the concrete cover. • Wire reinforcement helps to retain this but once the cover has spalled off, the steel conducts heat readily and failure is rapid.

11. Thermal Movement • The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete varies from 6 to 13 x 10-6 according to mix proportions, types of aggregate and curing conditions. • Limestone and broken brick aggregate concretes suffer about half the movement of ballast concrete.

12. Moisture Movement • Concrete shrinks when it dries and expands when it is wetted, the greater part of the initial drying shrinkage being irreversible. • Movement increases with the richness of a mix, with water:cement ration and where rigid aggregate is not used, (in lightweight aggregate and aerated concretes). • On the other hand, moisture movement can be halved by high pressure (not low pressure) steam curing. • If the stresses induced by shrinkage exceed the tensile strength of concrete, cracks tend to occur and this is particularly likely where concrete dries out before it has had time to develop much strength, or where concrete elements are fixed rigidly at their end.

13. Appearance • Obtaining good appearance on concrete requires special techniques and control, and therefore involves extra cost (finishes). • High quality smooth surfaces are difficult to achieve and generally more interesting appearance results where aggregates are exposed (by scrapping ‘green’ concrete)/

14. Materials of Dense Concrete • Ordinary plain concretes require cement, water and aggregates. • Water • Should be reasonably free from impurities such as suspended solids, organic matter and salts, which may adversely affect the setting, hardening and durability of the concrete. • This requirement is usually satisfied by using water which is fit for drinking, or where the quality of water is no doubt, it may be assessed by comparing the setting times of cement pastes and the compressive strengths of concrete made with it and with distilled water respectively.

15. Water • Sea water does not normally reduce the strength of Portland cement concrete and can safely be used for plain concrete. • However, efflorescence may occur and because salt promotes the corrosion of steel sea water must not be used for reinforced concrete. • It must never be used with high alumina cement.

16. Aggregates • As aggregates forms the bulk of hardened concrete and transport is costly, it is usually desirable to use local material. • Aggregate must be sufficiently strong, free from constituents which can react harmfully with the cement, be well graded and have very small, or no moisture movement. • Shape and texture affect the properties of unhardened concrete and in hardened concrete the weather resistance, hardness, appearance and thermal conductivity of the aggregate are sometimes important.

17. Types • Natural and crushed gravels, sands and crushed stones such as granite, basalt, hard lime stones and sandstones are in common use as aggregated for dense concrete. Strength • Normal concrete strengths are substantially lower than those of the natural aggregates which are commonly available and the strength of aggregates is rarely a limiting factor. • In fact, aggregates of moderate and low strength reduce the stress in the cement paste and can increase the durability of concrete.

18. Density • The bulk density of natural dense aggregates varies. • Very heavy aggregates such as barytes have been used for biological shielding for radiation. Cleanliness • Aggregates should be free from significant quantities of substance which: • Are chemically incompatible with cement (sulphate and organic material). Certain aggregates which contain reactive silica cause alkali aggregate reaction with hardened cement paste containing more than 0.6 % soda. • Reduce bond with aggregate (clay and oil coatings) • Expand (bituminous coal)

19. Cleanliness • Decompose (organic matter) • Attract moisture (salt) • Causing stain (pyrites) • Gravels and sands should be washed by the suppliers to remove soluble matter and silt. Specific Surface • The larger the superficial area of the aggregate particles by reason of angularity of the aggregate, rough texture of a high proportion of small particles, the less workable the concrete will be. On the other hand, angularity and rough texture allow a greater adhesive force to develop.

20. Grading • The proportion of the different sizes of particles is known as the grading of an aggregate which is usually expressed as % by weight passing various sieves conforming to BS 410:1976. • Conventionally, aggregate which is mainly retained on a 5mm BS sieve (natural gravel and crushed gravel and stones) is called coarse aggregate and aggregate which mainly passes through a 5mm sieve is called fine aggregate.

21. Water:Cement Ratio • Concretes which are required to provide strength, hardness, durability, imperviousness and resistance to chemicals must be as dense as possible and this requires a low water:cement ratio expressed either: • Total weight of water / weight of cement • Or as free water:cement ratio. • Free water being the total weight of water in concrete less the weight of water which is absorbed by aggregates. • Any water in excess of the small quantity required to hydrate the cement- about 4.7 liters per 50kg for Portland cement and 9.5 liters for high alumina cement – causes voids.

22. Cont’d • The strongest of the concrete are obtained by using a workable aggregate with the lowest water:cement ratio which enables the mix to be thoroughly compacted by mechanical means. • A low water:cement ratio also reduces the shrinkage of concrete and increases its durability. • Loss of strength due to the conversion of high alumina cement is much more pronounced at higher structural work the water:cement ratio should not exceed 0.5 for reinforced concrete and 0.4 for prestressed concrete.

23. Workability • This term is used to describe the ease with which concrete mixes can be compacted and the highest possible workability must be aimed at so that concrete will be as completely compacted as possible while using the lowest possible water:cement ratio. • Workability should be obtained by the use of a well graded aggregate and one which has the largest maximum particle size which will pass readily between and around the reinforcement, rather than by increasing the cement: aggregate ratio which increases the shrinkage and cost of concrete. • The use of smooth and rounded, rather than irregularly shaped aggregate also increases workability but in high strength concretes there may be no overall increase in strength, because with equal water:cement ratios irregularly shaped aggregate produces the stronger concrete.

24. Cont’d • Ait entraining admixtures improve the workability of mixes (and improve the frost resistance of hardened concrete) but the reduction in density of the concrete is accompanied by a loss of strength up to about 15%. • On most building sites a rough indication of workability is obtained by the slump test.

25. Manufacture of Concrete • Concrete can either be made wholly on the site or the potential advantaged of factory production can be partially secured by the use of ready mixed concrete or wholly secured by the use of precast products. • The process of manufacture are: • Checking and storage of materials • Batching • Mixing • Tests on mixed concrete • Formwork and reinforcement • Transport to formwork and placing • Compaction • Curing • Removal of formwork • Protection • Construction joints

26. Storage of Materials • Storage of materials must prevent deterioration of cement and contamination and segregation of aggregates. • Cement must be kept dry. • Paper bags cannot be relied upon to prevent air setting and resulting lumpiness. • Exceptionally, where it is not certain that cement can be stored in dry conditions or it can be used soon after delivery it may be advantageous to use hydrophobic Portland cement. • Particular care should be taken in storing extra rapid hardening and ultra high early strength Portland cements and supersulphated cement.

27. Cont’d • High alumina cement should be preferably be kept in a store separate from Portland cement. • Paper bags should not be stacked more than 4 or 5 feet high to avoid warehouse set caused by compaction. • Cement should be used in the order in which it was received. • Aggregates should be kept on clean hand surfaces and not directly on the ground. • The various sizes of aggregates should be kept separately and where possible stock piles should be duplicated so that deliveries can drain for at least twelve hours before use.

28. Batching • Accurate batching of cement, aggregates and water make for saving in cost of designed mixes by enabling a lower control factor to be employed. • It used to be customary to specify and to batch cement and aggregates in proportions by volume, as so called nominal mixes, but volume batching tends to be inaccurate because both cement and sand are subject to bulking and coarse aggregate is difficult to measure accurately by volume. • Cement in batched by weight and normally and preferably the aggregate also.

29. Cont’d • Cement • Varies in bulk density from about 1120-1600kg/m3 according to the way in which the container is filled. • Where a weighing device is not available, the bag can be used as a unit. • Sand • Dry and wet sands have the same volume, but damps sand has a greater volume and if sand is measured by volume and allowance is not made for bulking concrete mixes may be seriously under sanded.

30. Cont’d • Coarse aggregate • Deep and narrow gauging boxes reduce error in volume batching but the method is laborious. • Properly maintained weight batching machines are very accurate and easy to use. • Water • As the water:cement ratio determines the strength and durability of concrete, the amount of water contained in each batch is critical. • The gross weight of water (kg) per batch is water:cement ratio x weight of cement (kg).

31. Cont’d • The tanks fitted to the larger mixers have gauges which enables a measured quantity of water to be added to each batch. • This must be adjusted from time to time to allow for the water contained in the aggregate. • During the progress of work if changes in the moisture contents of aggregates are small, provided the quantities of cement and aggregates and the type of aggregates remain the same, the quantity of added water can be adjusted so as to maintain the workability indicated by a slump test on the first batch.

32. Mixing • Concrete may be mixed on the site, or ‘at works’ for precast concrete or for delivery to the site a ready mixed concrete. • On site mixers • The most commonly used type are batch mixers of the single compartment drum type. • Truck mixers • Some mixers incorporate weight batching equipment and attachments for hand scrapers to assist in loading the hoppers and normally 200 liter and larger mixers can measure volumes of water. • So that water is evenly distributed, it should enter the mixer before or at the same time as the other materials. • The proportion of coarse aggregate should be reduced for the first batch or two each day to compensate for the loss of mortar which sticks to the blades and inside the drum. • The time required for thorough mixing varies according to the characteristics of the mix and of the mixer.

33. Cont’d • When the concrete has been mixed the complete contents of the drum should be discharged in one operation to avoid segregation of the larger stones. • Mixer should be thoroughly washed out and cleaned daily and even after short stoppages, to prevent ‘caking’ with hardened concrete which reduces the machine’s efficiency and they should be cleaned out when the type of cement is changed.

34. Tests On Mixed Concrete • Consistency of Manufacture • The slump test, which is easy to carry out, indicates variations in the shape of grading of aggregate, or in the proportion of water being used. • Workability • The slump test gives an approximate indication of the workability of Portland cement mixes which are neither too stiff nor too plastic. • The compaction factor test is more accurate, but neither test is suitable where the maximum size of aggregate exceeds 40mm.

35. Compression Tests • Cubes made before and during the placing of concrete on the site are tested in crushing machines to give some indication of the strength which would be acquired by the actual work. Preliminary Cube Tests • Preliminary compression tests require very accurate control of materials and test conditions. • The materials intended to be used are mixed in the laboratory in the proportions to be used in the work.

36. Work Cube Tests • Samples of the concrete which is being placed in each part of the work should be made into cubes in accordance with BS 1881:1970. • Specimens to be tested should be kept free from vibration and under damp sacks for 24 hours +1/2 hour before removing them from the moulds. • They should be marked and stored in water at a temperature between 10 and 21’C. • They should be covered with damp material to be taken to a laboratory where they must be stored in water again for 24hours before being tested. • A typical specification requires that if a cube fails at 7 days to attain the strength specified for that age, another cube made from the same concrete may be tested at 28 days.

37. Cont’d • If the second cube fails to attain the strength specified for 28 days, the specification may give the contractor the opportunity of testing cores cut from the placed concrete to prove that the concrete which was placed provides the strength required.

38. Formwork • Formwork provides the shape and surface texture of concrete members and supports them during setting and hardening. • It must be grout-tight, true in line, level, face and profile and strong enough to accept all constructional loads including those resulting from mechanical compaction. • Formwork is the best constructed in units for easy erection, striking without damaging the concrete and so that it can be reused. • The faces of formwork should be treated with mould oil to give a clean release but avoiding excess oil which stains concrete and which may interfere with bond for plaster.

39. Formworks

40. Reinforcement • Reinforcement should comply with the following standards: • BS 4449:1978 hot rolled steel bars for reinforcement of concrete • BS 4482:1982:1969 hard drawn mild steel wire for the reinforcement of concrete • BS 4486:1980 hot rolled, and hot rolled and processed high tensile alloys steel bars for prestressing of concrete • BS 4757:1971 nineteen wire steel strand for prestressed concrete • BS 4483:1969 steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete • BS 5896:1980 high tensile strength steel wire strand for the prestressing of concrete

41. Reinforcement

42. Reinforcement

43. Cont’d • Reinforcement should be free from loose mill scale, loose rust, oil or grease. • Reinforcement should be placed in the exact positions shown on the drawings and the specified cover ensured, eg by spacers fixed to the reinforcement. • Great care should be taken to avoid damage or disturbance to formwork when positioning reinforcement.

44. Transport to Formwork and Placing • Whether concrete is moved from the mixer by lorries, barrows, dumpers, mechanical skips or pipeline it is important that the composition of the mix is not altered and that segregation does not take place. • All pant, chutes, etc should be thoroughly cleaned after use without allowing the waste water to enter formwork. • ‘Wet’ mixes are particularly likely to segregate and where possible, these should not be dropped into position. • Chutes should be arranged so that a continuous flow is discharged at the lower end. • Immediately, before concrete is placed, formwork should be thoroughly cleaned out and formwork and reinforcement should be re-checked.

45. Compaction • Trapped air which should not exceed about 2 % when concrete is placed must be released if the maximum density associated resistance to chemicals, water vapor, frost and abrasion is to be be obtained. • Thorough compaction is also very important where concrete faces are to be exposed to view. • Air is very liable to be trapped against form faces and at joints between hardened and newly placed concrete. • Compaction should commence as soon as possible once water has been added to concrete although so long as it remains possible to fully compact concrete by the means available, delay in doing so may not be serious up to perhaps two hours even in cold weather.

46. Curing • In order to obtain the desired strength, compacted concrete must be free from physical disturbance, • Water must be retained in the concrete • Temperature must be controlled

47. Removal of Formwork • Formwork must be left in position, and the supports maintained, until concrete is sufficiently strong to safely support its own weight and any loads which may be put on it. • Concrete should have a cube strength at least twice the stress to which the concrete is likely to be subjected at the time of striking. • The times which should elapse before formwork is remove vary considerably according to the cement used, temperature of the concrete during curing and other factors.

48. Cont’d • Supports should be eased away uniformly and very slowly so that the load is not suddenly imposed on partly hardened concrete. • Formwork must be stripped carefully to avoid damage to arises and projections, especially where vertical surfaces are exposed within 12 hours of casting. Protection • After stripping formwork, it may be necessary to protect concrete for damage by knocks, shocks and vibration; from drying in hot weather and from loss of heat in cold weather.

49. Construction Joints • Whenever concreting is interrupted the construction which are inevitable formed are potentially weak. • They may allow water to enter and they are always visible, particularly after a period of weathering. • The positions and design of construction joints should therefore be decided at an early stage. • Joints should be straight, either vertical or horizontal, and in walls in positions related to window openings and other features. • Generally, in columns, construction joints are made as near as possible to the beam haunching and in beams and slabs within the middle third of span. • Vertical joints should be formed against temporary but rigid stop boards which must be designed to allow reinforcement to pass through.

50. Lightweight Concrete • Examples: • Aerated concretes • Lightweight aggregate concretes • No fines concretes • Weighing less than 1920kg/m3 • Are made in densities down to about 160kg/m3. • Advantages of using lightweight concrete than dense concrete: • Savings in costs of handling materials and of supporting structures • Superior thermal insulation and fire resistance • Superior sound absorption of unplastered surfaces; some of which offer better key for plaster • Usually easy to cut, chase and nail into.