Fundamental approaches (‘cultures’) in TS research

1. Fundamental approaches (‘cultures’) in TS research daniel.gile@yahoo.com www.cirinandgile.com Gile research approaches

2. Why science? (1) Learning about the world around us Directly, through sensory perception and cognitive processing of sensory input Indirectly, when listening to others, reading them, imitating them In all these cases, there is sensory perception, if only of other people’s statements and action, followed by cognitive processing (The brain processes signals received through the senses and interprets them) SENSORY LIMITATIONS COGNITIVE LIMITATIONS AFFECTIVE INTERFERENCE Gile research approaches

3. Why science? (2) Hence a risk of acquisition of - Incomplete knowledge - Incorrect knowledge How to improve it? - Physical tools (Glasses, parabolic antennas, X-rays, IR, smoke sensors, vibration sensors, telescopes, computers, spectrometers, chemical tests…) - Organizational tools (Lists, tables, procedures…) - Intellectual tools Mathematics, rationales… Gile research approaches

4. Why science? (3) Science acknowledges limitations in our ability to explore reality It attempts to push them back as far as possible - With physical, organizational, intellectual tools • With approaches built around norms - Fundamental norms (principles) - Implementation norms (apply to techniques and operational norms) - With institutional tools Gile research approaches

5. Fundamental norms of Canonical (idealized) science Science is skeptical, and therefore rigorous: - Systematic - Cautious - Objective to the best possible extent - Logical (using Cartesian logic) Science is descriptive, explanatory and if possible predictive it is not prescriptive But scientists can take prescriptive positions as citizens – not within the framework of their research Science is collective - Communicative - Critical - Explicit Gile research approaches

6. These norms are central to CSA (1) …so CSA researchers are supposed to always check, inter alia : That they have done everything they could with the resources they have: - To collect as much relevant information (relevant to the their research questions) as possible - To make sure they have measured everything they have measured as rigorously and as objectively as possible - To make sure they have considered all possible interpretations of phenomena they observed instead of just one that they like - To make sure their inferences are justified - To make sure they distinguish clearly between what they know and what they believe Gile research approaches

7. These norms are central to CSA (2) For instance: - That they have read all relevant publications available to them - That they have understood them correctly - That they have resisted resisted the temptation to be influenced by their favorite theory to explain a phenomenon without considering other explanations - That they have chosen a representative sample if possible - If the sample is not representative, that they have been careful not to overgeneralize - That they have taken on board all the data they have collected … Gile research approaches

8. These norms are central to CSA (3) More generally: CSA researchers systematically seek potential weaknesses in their work and in other authors’ work For the purpose of doing away with them or mitigating their effects This is a fundamental feature of the Canonical scientific approach which was initially developed in the natural sciences, and in particular in physics, .. And later adopted in other research fields, inter alia in experimental psychology, in some branches of sociology, of education science etc… Gile research approaches

9. “Scientific” or not? For some followers of CSA, any research which does not abide by its norms is not ‘scientific’ For some, such research is “only” “philosophy”, “literature”, “violin playing” When it abides by some institutional academic norms prevalent in the humanities, I will refer to it as HSA (Human Science Approaches) Though it is not exclusive to the humanities, And though CSA can also be found in the humanities Some TS scholars reject this distinction and resent what they see as connotations of such a distinction I prefer to make it nevertheless because it exists and refusing to acknowledge it can lead to communication problems within the discipline and to a loss of quality in research Gile research approaches

10. CLASSIFICATIONS Basic Research / Applied Research: Exploring reality vs Changing reality Theoretical / Empirical : The emphasis is on concepts, not on data / Data, its collection, analysis and processing are central Note: Empirical research Essentially serves theory By helping develop it and/or test it Gile research approaches

11. Empirical research Research work which essentially attempts to find answers to research question through the collection and/or analysis of data More specifically, Through the analysis of a well-defined, explicitly presented dataset as the sole basis for inferences made Empirical research is generally (but not always) assessed with reference to SCA norms Gile research approaches

12. Empirical researchEvidence to show global warming Gile research approaches

13. Theoretical research Research activity which essentially attempts to find answers to research question through reflection on observed facts and on other authors’ ideas Relevant facts are not required to be well-defined or presented explicitly Note that theoretical research can be part of th SCA approach Upstream of more specific formalization and empirical testing When such theoretical research is all there is to a research project, it can generally be classified as SHA Gile research approaches

14. The canonical scientific cycle Initial observations ↓ Tentative generalization (Theory) ↓ (Empirical) testing of the theory ↓ Improvement/change of theory ↓ Test of new theory ↓ …. Gile research approaches

15. Canonical scientific cycle Initial observations (Essentially Empirical) ↓ Tentative generalization (Theoretical reflection) ↓ Testing of the theory (Empirical, often with a theoretical parts) ↓ Improvement/change of theory (Theoretical) ↓ Testing of new theory (Empirical and theoretica) ↓ …. Gile research approaches

16. The real scientific cycle Also depends on social factors Groups with influence, power structures, subjectivity Thomas Kuhn : The structure of scientific revolutions Paradigm determined by scientists in power Stability and resistance to new ideas Until they are overturned, a new generation of scientists takes control of the power and established a new paradigm … ever-recurring cycle This is not necessarily “bad” Prevents excessive fluctuations in theories… but can slow down progression considerably Gile research approaches

17. HSA – Some features (1) Essentially conceptual/theoretical rather than empirical but empirical components may be present as well And sometimes, HSA studies are essentially empirical… (when they look at field data, and when they look at writings by other academic authors as data) but not compliant with CSA norms They interpret field data with much less caution and restraint than CSA studies Data are used mostly for illustration purposes or to provide contradicting evidence when criticizing a theory Generally no comprehensive and systematic analysis of a corpus No systematic caution when inferencing on the basis of data Gile research approaches

18. HSA – some features (2) Starting point is often existing ideas, theories or statements (as opposed to data) and criticism thereof Often lead to - Classifications In CSA, classifications are generally used for exploratory purposes, not as an end per se - Theories - Sometimes to prescriptive positions (CSA leads more often to better factual knowledge, to new theories, to empirical research methods) Progression is achieved mainly through debates between authors (In CSA, mostly through acquisition of data and inferences on that basis) Gile research approaches

19. DE FACTO HSA norms - Rigorous, meticulous work when presenting facts and rationale - HSA is communicative - Caution and objectivity less central than in CSA. In some cases, subjectivity is encouraged - No fundamental objection to making claims on the basis of a few examples (unlike CSA) (such claims can be contradicted with counter-examples by other authors) - (In opposition to CSA norm), inferences can be made on the basis of positions inferred by readers of scholarly papers – as opposed to positions actually spelled out, as in CSA Gile research approaches

20. Some HSA authors in TS(excluding ESIT) EUGENE NIDA GEORGES MOUNIN JEAN-RENE LADMIRAL HANS VERMEER KATARINA REISS ANDREW CHESTERMAN MARY SNELL-HORNBY GIDEON TOURY ANTHONY PYM THEO HERMANS Gile research approaches

21. Some CSA authors in TS(excluding ESIT) KRINGS LÖRSCHER GYDE HANSEN SONJA TIRKKONEN-CONDIT BIRGITTA ENGLUND-DIMITROVA JORMA TOMMOLA FRANCO FABBRO PRESENTACION PADILLA BARBARA MOSER-MERCER SYLVIE LAMBERT ALEXANDER KÜNZLI Gile research approaches

22. Professional/personal experience, Reflection, Generalization (PRG) Common among practitioners of translation and interpreting Based on considerable experience and reflection Which gives them: - Very good knowledge of relevant phenomena - Solid gut feeling about them - The ability to interpret correctly observed phenomena - The ability to assess the relative importance and frequency of occurrence of such phenomena in the field Gile research approaches

23. PRG – A professional, non-academic approach In the literature, some papers and books written on this basis. These are ‘professional’ rather than academic texts, but they are not without merit They consist of descriptions, reflection, sometimes prescriptions. They sometimes offer data to illustrate ideas or make points, but not in a systematic, cautious way as in CSA Reflection is not quite deep and systematic enough to qualify as theoretical in academic terms, and there is little engagement with existing theories PRG authors sometimes evolve into HSA or CSA Gile research approaches

24. A comparison of the advantages of each approach CSA Lower subjectivity, replicability of empirical findings, stability of findings in each step of the research process HSA Fast progression, creativity without the constraint of having to demonstrate empirically the truth of each claim, possibility of addressing phenomena which are difficult to identify as data and to quantify PRG Fast progression in the initial steps because of the professionals’ good personal knowledge of the relevant phenomena and environment Gile research approaches

25. Is one approach better than the other? No… Each has its pluses and minuses Which make it better suited to different types of research In TS, defensive attitude of many HSA scholars who are worried about CSA taking over with its norms The risk is probably low There is little data to justify the worry: Over time, the proportion of empirical studies in TS has been increasing But there is also more HSA research, and HSA is still going strong (bibliometrical data) Gile research approaches

26. Why draw your attention to the three ‘poles’? Because : TS is still in the making, not quite mature as a research discipline The three types of approaches are found in the TS literature Representatives of all three meet and read each other If they do not understand each other’s approaches and underlying norms: - Communication problems - Insufficient consideration and respect for scholars from other approaches - Sometimes clashes which could be avoided Gile research approaches

27. Theoretical categories and actual texts All TS texts cannot be categorized as CSA, HSA, PRG. Some are state-of-the-art reviews, analyses, didactic texts and do not report research in the narrow sense of the term. Some do report research but are not quite compliant with the norms of one research approach Authors can and do write in more than one category of texts, though one’s ‘style’ can often be identified as closer to CSA or HSA The theoretical advantages of each approach are effective only if researchers do good work. In particular, in the literature, there are many CSA texts which are not rigorous and cautious enough – and HSA texts which are Gile research approaches

28. Beginners remember The norms for CSA, HSA and PRG are not the same That PRG is generally not seen as academic research When you start a research project such as a graduation or MA thesis or doctoral dissertation, If your supervisor is a trained researcher, you will be guided and assessed on the basis of a set of rules which are either CSA or HSA The way you are supposed to go about seeking an answer to your research questions is not the same in the two categories What is appropriate in one will often be criticized in another Seeking a ‘middle way’ is not really a good option because it will probably lead to weaknesses from both viewpoints The best way is to make a deliberate choice Gile research approaches