Child Growth and Development, ELED 132

1. Child Growth and Development, ELED 132 Dr. Andrew R. Whitehead More Information at: www.esu.edu/~andrew

2. Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation • Motivation – state that energizes, directs and sustains behavior • Intrinsic Motivation – internal desire to perform a particular task • Extrinsic Motivation – motivation promoted by factors external to the individual and unrelated to the task being performed

3. Behaviorist Perspectives of Motivation • B.F. Skinner – best know behaviorist • Behaviorism – theoretical perspective in which behavior is described and explained in terms of specific stimulus-response relationships • Operant conditioning – explanation of behavior change in which a response increases in frequency as a result of being followed by reinforcement

4. Behaviorist Perspectives of Motivation • Reinforcer – consequences of a response that leads to an increased frequency of that response

5. Behaviorist Perspectives of Motivation • Positive reinforcement – consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the presentation (rather than the removal) of a stimulus • Negative reinforcement – consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the removal (that than the presentation) of a stimulus

6. Behaviorist Perspectives of Motivation • Trends in Children’s Responses to Reinforcers • With age, secondary reinforcers become increasingly influential • Primary reinforcer – stimulus that satisfies a basic human need • Secondary reinforcer – stimulus that becomes reinforcing over time through its association with another reinforcer • Children soon learn that some responses are reinforced only occasionally • Children become increasingly able to delay gratification

7. Social Cognitive Perspectives of Motivation • Albert Bandura • Social Cognitive Theory – theoretical perspective that focuses on the roles of observation and modeling in learning motivation

8. Social Cognitive Perspectives of Motivation • General Principles of Motivation • Children learn many new behaviors by watching those around them • Competence • Prestige and power • Gender-appropriate behavior • Children are more likely to behave in ways that expect will bring about desirable consequences

9. Social Cognitive Perspectives of Motivation • General Principles of Motivation • Children’s expectations are influenced by what happens to others as well as by what happens to themselves • Vicarious reinforcement – phenomenon in which a person increases a certain response after seeing another person reinforced for that response • Vicarious punishment – phenomenon in which a person decreases a certain response after seeing another person punished for that response • Children are more likely to undertake activities for which they have high self-efficacy

10. Cognitive Perspectives of Motivation • Development of Intrinsic Motivation • Curiosity • Need for Cognitive Consistency – disequalibrium • Interest • Value – belief that an activity has direct or indirect benefits • Competence • Self-determination

11. Developmental Trends in Intrinsic Motivation • As children get older, they become less optimistic about their capabilities • As children grow older, their interests become increasingly stable and dependent on existing ability levels • Choices gradually shift from those based on personal interest to those based on usefulness • Intrinsic motivation for learning school subject matter declines during the school years • Over time, children internalize the motivation to perform some activities

12. Development of Goals • Mastery goal – desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills • Performance goal – desire to look good and receive favorable judgments from others

13. Development of Attributions • Attributions – belief about the cause of one’s success or failure • Developmental Trends in Attribution • With age, children are more likely to attribute their successes and failures to ability rather than to effort • Children gradually develop predictable patterns of attributions and expectations for their future performance

14. Fostering Motivation in the Classroom • Focus on promoting intrinsic (rather than extrinsic) motivation • Minimize comparisons and competition among students; instead focus student’s attention on their own improvement • Use extrinsic reinforcers where necessary

15. Fostering Motivation in the Classroom • Tailor your motivational strategies to individual students’ needs and motives • Be especially attentive to the needs of students at risk • Students who have a high probability of failing to acquire minimal academic success in the adult world

16. Development of Self-Regulation • Self-regulation – setting standards and goals for oneself and engaging in behaviors that lead to the accomplishment of those standards and goals

17. Development Trends in Self-Regulation • External rules and restrictions gradually become internalized • Emotional reactions become more restrained • Self-evaluation becomes more frequent • Conditions that Promote Self-Regulation • Authoritative Parenting – emotional warmth, high expectations and standards for behavior, consistent enforcement of the rules, explanations of the reasons behind these rules and the inclusion of children in decision-making

18. Promoting Self-Regulation • Create an orderly and somewhat predictable environment • Provide age-appropriate opportunities for independence • Provide help when, but only when, children really need it • Teach specific management skills

19. Moral Development • Morality • a general set of standards about right and wrong • Moral dilemma • Situation in which there is no clear cut answer regarding the right thing to do

20. Development of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg • Kohlberg’s Stages • Level I: Preconventional Morality • Judgment based on consequences • Stage 1: Punishment-avoidance and obedience • Do what is best for themselves • Stage 2: Exchange of Favors • Recognize the needs of others

21. Development of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg • Kohlberg’s Stages • Level II: Conventional Morality • Acceptance of society’s rights and wrongs • Stage 3: Good boy/good girl • Look to authority figures for guidance • Stage 4: Law and Order • Look to society to find the rights and wrongs

22. Development of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg • Kohlberg’s Stages • Level III: Postconventional Morality • Develop abstract principles of right and wrong • Stage 5: Social contract • An agreement with many people on how to behave • Stage 6: Universal ethical principle • A few basic abstract principles govern all