Human Memory

1. Human Memory It is good to have an end to journey towards; but it is the journey that matters, in the end. Ursula K. Le Gui

2. MEMORY System that allows for retention of what is Learned

3. Ten Principles of Memory • Recite often ! • Reinforce what you’ve learned through repetition • If there is a basis for doing so, divide and group • Organize the material so that it can be stored • Associate new material with related facts you know • Involve your ego, if possible • Try to see the significance of what you’re learning • Be sure you fully understand • Get the info right the 1st time • Pay attention

4. Three Kinds of Memory 1.Episodic – memories of personal experience 2.Semantic – general knowledge or memory for facts 3. Procedural or Implicit – memory for skills Episodic – Do you remember your first interaction with a personal computer? Semantic – Do you know the meaning of personal computer? Procedural or Implicit– Are you fluent in the use of a personal computer?

5. Mnemonic Device System for remembering in which items are related to easily recalled sets of symbols, such as acronyms, phrases, or jingles EXAMPLES “i” before “e” except after “c” “Be, all that you can be!” “Every Good Boy Does Fine!” “Like a Rock”

6. Episodic - Semantic - Procedural Which is involved? 1.First Kiss 10.Use a computer 2.Riding a bike 11.Spell C-A-T 3.Walking through a maze 12.Driving a car 4.List the 50 states 13.H²0 5.Define Memory 14.Describe a fight to someone 6.Cut and Paste an art project 15.First day in high school 7.Writing notes off an overhead 8.Formula for classical conditioning 9.Witness a car accident

7. Three Processes of Memory 1.ENCODING - modifying information so that it can be placed in memory a. visual code b. acoustic code c. semantic code 2.STORING - maintenance of information over time • maintenance rehearsal (157) • elaborative rehearsal • organizational systems (superordinate & subordinate) 3.RETRIEVING- location of stored information and its return to consciousness • proper cues • context-dependent memory • state-dependent memory

8. Stores all the stimuli that register on the senses You have to go up... RETRIEVING STORING ENCODING before you come down!

9. Information-Processing Model of Memory • Computer as a model for our memory • Three types of memory • Sensory memory • Short-term memory (STM) • Long-term memory (LTM) • Can hold vast quantities of information for many years

10. Three Stages of Memory 1. Sensory Memory - the type or stage of memory first encountered by a stimulus. Sensory memory holds impressions briefly, but long enough so that series of perceptions are psychologically continuous. • Saccadic Eye Movement • Memory trace • Sensory Register • Iconic memory • Echoic memory That analogy makes a lot of "cents"!

11. Sensory Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory • Lasts up to three seconds • Two types • Iconic memory • Visual • Usually lasts about 0.3 seconds • Sperling’s tests (1960s) • Echoic memory (we’ll come back to this)

12. 2. Short Term Memory (STM) [ 7+/-2 - about 1 min.] SERIAL POSITION EFFECT – the tendency to recall more accurately the first and last items in a series. • PRIMACY EFFECT – the tendency to recall the initial items in a series of items. • RECENCY EFFECT – the tendency to recall the last items in a series of items.

13. Short Term Memory (STM) Pages 162-163 OTHER KEY TERMS: Chunk – a mental process for organizing information into meaningful units, or “chunks,” (162) Interference – the process that occurs when new information appears in short-term memory and replaces what was already there

14. Memory • Process by which information is: • Acquired • Encoding • Stored in the brain • Storage • Later retrieved • Retrieval • Eventually (possibly) forgotten

15. Information-Processing Model of Memory Retrieval Stimulus Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Attention Encoding Forgetting Forgetting Forgetting

16. 3 Stages of Memory

17. Sperling’s Experiment • Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 seconds • Report as many letters as possible • Subjects recalled only half of the letters • Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to view entire matrix? • No • How did Sperling know this?

18. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

19. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

20. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

21. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

22. High Medium Low Sperling’s Experiment • Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared • Tone signaled 1 row to report • Recall was almost perfect • Memory for images fades after 1/3 seconds or so, making report of entire display hard to do

23. Sensory Memory • Echoic memory • Sensory memory for auditory input that lasts only 2 to 3 seconds • Why do we need sensory memory?

24. Short-term Memory • Function • Conscious processing of information • Attention is the key • AKA working memory Sensory Memory Working or Short-term Memory Attention Sensory Input

25. Memorize the following list of numbers: 1 8 1 2 1 9 4 1 1 7 7 6 1 4 9 2 2 0 0 1

26. Write down the numbers in order.

27. Now, try again… 1812 1941 1776 1492 2001

28. Short-term Memory • Limited capacity • Can hold 7 ± 2 items for about 20 seconds • Maintenance rehearsal • The use of repetition to keep info in short-term memory • CHUNK • Meaningful unit of information • Without rehearsal, we remember 4 ± 2 chunks • With rehearsal, we remember 7 ± 2 chunks • Ericsson & Chase (1982) 89319443492502157841668506120948888568772731418610546297480129497496592280

29. Long-term Memory • Once information passes from sensory to short-term memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory Retrieval Encoding Sensory Memory Attention Working or Short-term Memory Long-term memory Sensory Input

30. Long-term memory - Encoding • Elaborative rehearsal • A technique for transferring information into long-term memory by thinking about it in a deeper way • Levels of processing • Semantic is more effective than visual or acoustic processing • Craik & Tulving (1975) • Self-referent effect • By viewing new info as relevant to the self, we consider that info more fully and are better able to recall it

31. Long-term memory • Procedural (Implicit) • Memories of behaviors, skills, etc. • Demonstrated through behavior • Declarative (Explicit) • Memories of facts • Episodic – personal experiences tied to places & time • Semantic – general knowledge • Semantic network

32. Semantic Networks Bus Truck Ambulance House Orange Fire Engine Fire Yellow Red Green Apples Cherry Sunrise Roses Daisies Clouds Sunsets Flowers

33. Retrieval • Retrieval • Process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store • Explicit memory • The types of memory elicited through the conscious retrieval of recollections in response to direct questions • Implicit memory • A nonconscious recollection of a prior experience that is revealed indirectly, by its effects on performance

34. Retrieval – Explicit Memory • Free-recall test • A type of explicit memory task in which a person must reproduce information without the benefit of external cues • Recognition task • A form of explicit memory retrieval in which items are presented to a person who must determine if they were previously encountered • Retrieval failure • Tip-of-the-tongue (Brown & McNeill)

35. Retrieval – Explicit Memory • Context-Dependent Memory • We are more successful at retrieving memories if we are in the same environment in which we stored them • State-Dependent Memory • We are more successful at retrieving memories if we are in the same mood as when we stored them

36. Retrieval – Implicit Memory • Showing knowledge of something without recognizing that we know it • Research with amnesics • Déjà vu • The illusion that a new situation is familiar • Eyewitness testimony • Eyewitness transference • Unintentional plagiarism

37. Forgetting If we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as ill off as if we remembered nothing. William James • Lack of encoding • Often, we don’t even encode the features necessary to ‘remember’ an object/event • Decay • Memory traces erode with the passage of time • No longer a valid theory of forgetting • Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924)

39. Interference theory • Forgetting is a result of some memories interfering with others • Proactive interference • Old memories interfere with ability to remember new memories • Retroactive interference • New memories interfere with ability to remember old memories • Interference is stronger when material is similar

40. Forgetting • Repression • There are times when we are unable to remember painful past events • While there is no laboratory evidence for this, case studies suggest that memories can be repressed for a number of years and recovered in therapy

41. Memory Construction • Schema theory • Preconceptions about persons, objects, or events that bias the way new information is interpreted and recalled • Misinformation effect • The tendency to incorporate false postevent information into one’s memory of the event itself • Illusory memories • People sometimes create memories that are completely false

42. Improving Memory • Practice time • Distribute your studying over time • Depth of processing • Spend ‘quality’ time studying • Verbal mnemonics • Use rhyming or acronyms to reduce the amount of info to be stored

43. Improving Memory • Method of loci • Items to be recalled are mentally placed in familiar locations • Interference • Study right before sleeping & review all the material right before the exam • Allocate an uninterrupted chunk of time to one course • Context reinstatement • Try to study in the same environment & mood in which you will be taking the exam