Nigeria

1. Nigeria Sovereignty, Authority, and Power Jessica Shi Period 1

2. Precolonial Nigeria • Various indigenous polities • Sophisticated + influential societies • Some major polities: • Hausa states of Kano, Katsina, Zaria, and Gobir • Yoruba states of Ife and Oyo

3. Hausa • Northern Nigeria • Loose alliances • Division of labor between states • Leadership based on ancestry • 1300s: Introduced to Islam • Honored traditional ways • 1800s: Conquered by Fulani (Western Sudan) • Created Sokoto Caliphate

4. Yoruba • Southwestern Nigeria • Allegiance paid to large urban center in area • Confederation of rulers: no centralized authority • 1700s: Civil war in Oyo between minor leaders • Rebels called Fulani for help • Fulani conquered all of Oyo by 1830s • 1880s: Treaty signed between warring factions with help from British

5. Slave Trade • Arrival of Europeans = Slave trade • 1/3 of Yoruba enslaved • 1/2 of Hausas enslaved • British rule: 2 mil. to 2.5 mil. enslaved • Traded for European goods • Sokoto jihad and Yoruba wars: guns/gunpowder

6. Colonial Nigeria • 1807: British legislation prohibits British subjects from participating in slave trade • Slave ships intercepted by Royal Navy • Some freed slaves migrate home, become agents to allow British trade • Encouraged palm oil trade, but failed to undermine slave trade

7. Colonial Nigeria • 1849: UK appointed consul over bights of Benin and Biafra • 1861: UK annexed Lagos • To better abolish slave trade (Lagos was an export point) • To protect trade interests from Lagos • 1884: UK formed Niger Coast Protectorate • During Berlin Conference: “Scramble for Africa”

8. Colonial Nigeria • 1886: Royal Niger Company established control over Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate • Chartered company • Competition with state-supported protectorates of France and Germany • 1899: Charter revoked • 1900: Transferred territories to British government • 1901: Nigeria became a British protectorate

9. Divisions between North and South • South • View that Africans incapable of maintaining order • Mercantilist system • North • Frederick Lugard appointed High Comissioner • 1902-1907: Period of fighting • Indirect rule: Throne retained by cooperative chief with considerable power • Budget deficit: Powerful merchants refuse to tax trade

10. Divisions between North and South • South • British created political hierarchy, rule through traditional and non-traditional leaders • Rapid spread of Western education and Christianity • North • Christian missionaries resisted by Muslim leaders • Traditional leaders kept

11. Colonial Nigeria • 1912: Lugard becomes governor of both northern and southern Nigeria • 1914: Both regions united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria • For economic purposes • Still divided administratively • Nigerian Legislative Council established: no legislative powers

12. Colonial Nigeria • 1922: Sir Hugh Clifford Constitution: Elective legislative houses, but only for southern provinces • 1946: Richards Constitution: Expanded Legislative Council, established three regions (Eastern, Western, Northern) to reconcile religious tensions • East: Igbo • West: Yoruba • North: Hausa and Fulani

13. Colonial Nigeria • 1951: Macpherson Constitution: Greater autonomy, central government with Council of Ministers + House of Representatives • Separate House of Chiefs for the North, to reflect tribal authority • 1954: Lyttleton Constitution: More revisions, paved way towards independence

14. Colonial Nigeria • 1957: Internal self-government in West + East regions, federal prime minister • 1959: Internal self-government in the North • 1950s: Ethnic cleavages • South committed to policies that would benefit the South because of wealth from export crops • North emirs want firm control on economics and politics, no intervention from federal government

15. Independence • 1960: British Act of Parliament, Nigeria became independent • First constitution as sovereign state • Retains Queen Elizabeth II as head of state

16. First Republic • 1963 Constitution: Federal republic based on Westminster system • Joint Nigerian’s People’s Congress (NPC, conservative, Hausa-Fulani interests) + Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP, Yoruba interests)

17. Military Rule 1 • 1966: Young Majors (Igbos) overthrew NPC-NNDP government, assassinated prime minister + premiers of West + North • Igbos in north massacred • 1966: Major General Yakubu Gowon took over leadership • Divided regions into 12 states

18. Military Rule 1 • 1967: Igbo rejects the division • EmekaOjukwu (Igbo officer) declares the Eastern region an independent nation: Republic of Biafra • 1967-1970: Nigerian Civil War: Ethnic/political conflict over attempted secession of Republic of Biafra • Biafra suffers the most: land-locked, starving, surrenders

19. Military Rule 1 • 1973: Rise of oil prices • Nigerian government becomes wealthy due to large reserves of petroleum (discovered in 1950s) • 1975: General Murtala Mohammed staged bloodless coup • Accused Gowon of oil corruption + delaying promise of civilian rule

20. Military Rule 1 • 1976: Mohammed assasinated • 1976: Chief of staff Lt. General OlusegunObasanjo takes over • Oil prices plummet, economic crisis + political disorder

21. Second Republic • 1979 Constitution: American-style presidential system • National Party of Nigeria (NPN, Hausa-Fulani interests) • Subdivisions increased to 19 states

22. Military Rule 2 • 1983 Election: Disputes over vote rigging, legal battle over NPN win • Military overthrew Second Republic • Major General MuhammaduBuhari emerged as leader of the Supreme Military Council • 1985: General Ibrahim Babngida overthrew Buhari • Claimed misuse of power, violations of human rights, failure to deal with economic crisis

23. Third Republic • 1993 Constitution: Return of democratic rule, never fully implemented • Babangida promised to return to civilian rule by 1990, then 1993 • 1989: Two established parties: National Republic Convention (NRC), Social Democratic Party (SDP)

24. Third Republic • 1993 Presidential Election: MoshoodAbiola (Yoruba businessman) seemed to be winning a decisive victory in early votes, Babngida annulled the election • 1993: Riots, >100 killed, Babangida handed over power to an interim government • Ernest Shonekan (nonpartisan businessman) is to rule until 1994 elections

25. Military Rule 3 • 1993: Defense Minister SaniAbacha forced Shonekan’s resignation (economic problems, political tension) • Dissolved democratic institutions • Replaced elected governors with military officers • 1994: Abiola declared himself president • 1995: Activist Ken Saro-Wiwa arrested for murder of rivals at a political rally, sentenced to death • Worldwide outcry over lack of fair trial

26. Military Rule 3 • 1998: Abacha died of heart failure, replaced by General AbdulsalamiAbubakar

27. Fourth Republic • 1999 Constitution: Restored democratic rule, in place today • People’s Democratic Party (PDP, right-leaning) • 1999 Election: OlusegunObasanjo won • Marked improvements in human rights + freedom of press • Still lots of violence over ethnic + religious differences

28. Fourth Republic • 2003: Obasanjo reelected • 2007: UmaruYar’Adua elected President (PDP), marred with electoral fraud • 2010: Goodluck Jonathan (PDP) took over after Yar’Adua’s death • 2011: Jonathan won reelections, current President of Nigeria

29. Future Problems • Rebuilding a petroleum-based economy • Ethnic + religious tension • Conflict over oil • Not a lot of constitutionalism (because there were so many constitutions) • Poverty: gap between upper + lower class, very small middle class

30. Legitimacy • Election fraud (especially 2007) • Voting boxes vandalized/stolen • Lack of privacy, police instructing people who to vote for • Underage voting • Military dependence • OlusegunObasanjo: former military general • Lack of rule of law under generals • Low levels of trust

31. Political Culture • Patron-client system • “Prebendalism”: sense of entitlement to government revenues • Large networks based on personal loyalty • Corruption • Voting • Unreliable statistics: estimated 2/3 of eligible voters voted in 2003

32. Media • All 36 states run their own radio stations • Radio: main source of information • >100 private + state-owned newspapers • Reflects ethnic divisions • Illiteracy is an issue • National Broadcasting Commission monitors broadcast media

33. Supranational Orgnizations • Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) member • Received assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) • Participated in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) • Ambitions similar to those of the European Union (EU)

34. Presidents • First Republic • 1963-1966: NnamdiAzikiwe • Military Rule 1 • 1966-1966: Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi • 1966-1975: General Yakubu Gowon • 1975-1976: General Murtala Mohammed • 1976-1979: Major-General OlusegunObasanjo

35. Presidents • Second Republic • 1979-1983: ShehuShagari • Military Rule 2 • 1983-1985: Major-General MuhammaduBuhari • 1985-1993: General Ibrahim Babangida • Third Republic • 1993-1993: Ernest Shonekan • Military Rule 3 • 1993-1998: General SaniAbacha • 1998-1999: General AbdulsalamiAbubakar

36. Presidents • Fourth Republic • 1999-2007: OlusegunObasanjo • 2007-2010: Umaru Musa Yar’Adua • 2010-present: Goodluck Jonathan

37. Regions • North: Hausa-Fulani, predominately Muslim • Southwest: Yoruba, 40% Muslim + 40% Christian • Southeast: Igbo, mostly Roman Catholic, growing number of Protestant Christians

38. Map

39. Tic Tac Toe (sorta)