1. Problem Solving & Creativity Dr. Claudia J. Stanny EXP 4507 Memory & Cognition Spring 2009

2. Overview • Representing problems • Strategies for solving problems • Expertise and problem solving • Impediments to solving problems • Creativity Claudia J. Stanny

3. What is a Problem? • Discrepancy between the current situation and a desired situation • Initial state • Goal State • Obstacles that make transition between states difficult • Problem solving entails: • Accurately representing the problem • Discovering procedures to eliminate obstacles Claudia J. Stanny

4. Types of Problems • Well-defined problems • Can identify or describe a “correct” solution • May be established algorithms for arriving at a solution • Ill-defined problems • A single “correct” solution may not be known • Difficult to evaluate the quality of multiple potential solutions • Procedures for solving the problem may be unknown Claudia J. Stanny

5. Representing Problems • Different problems must be represented differently to achieve a solution • Need to discover and use the most appropriate method for representing problems of a given type • Symbols • Matrices • Diagrams • Visual images Claudia J. Stanny

6. Probability Tree Diagram Claudia J. Stanny

7. Problem-Solving Strategies • Algorithms • Heuristics • Mean-ends analysis • Hill-climbing heuristic • Analogies Claudia J. Stanny

8. Mean-Ends Analysis • General Problem Solver (Newell & Simon) • Problem space • Beginning/Current state • Goal state • Operations available to modify the current state • Problems are defined as a difference between the current state and the goal state • Solution may require setting sub-goals • Select operations that reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state Claudia J. Stanny

9. Hill-Climbing Heuristic • At each choice point, select the operation or procedure that moves you closer to the goal state • Problem: Sometimes the solution requires temporarily moving away from the goal state Claudia J. Stanny

10. Backward Reasoning • Reverse the process in means-ends analysis • Consider the operations needed to make the goal state look more like the current state • Helps in establishing important subgoals for means-ends analysis • May help identify important operations that are not obvious when using forward reasoning Claudia J. Stanny

11. Reasoning by Analogy • Use a known system to serve as a model for the current problem • Basis for the analogy • Surface features of the problem and the model are similar • Structural features of the problem and the model are similar • We discover useful solutions more often when the analogy is based on similar structural features Claudia J. Stanny

12. Problem Solving by Experts and Novices • How details about the problem are perceived • Memory for details about the problem • Experts recognize important structural characteristics of problems • Experts rely more frequently on forward reasoning • Proceduralization of reasoning strategies • Differences between experts and novices are domain-specific rather than general Claudia J. Stanny

13. Factors that Interfere with Effective Problem Solving Claudia J. Stanny

14. Mental Set • Bias to adopt the strategy, procedure or interpretation that was used with previous problems • Make assumptions that are not justified and that interfere with solution to the problem • Functional Fixedness: Focus on typical uses for objects rather than novel uses that will enable solving the problem Claudia J. Stanny

15. Luchins Water Jug Problem • Jar A 20; Jar B 5; Jar C 130 – Need 100 • Jar A 12; Jar B 3; Jar C 108 – Need 90 • Jar A 6; Jar B 1; Jar C 28 – Need 20 • Jar A 6; Jar B 4; Jar C 44 – Need 30 • Jar A 10; Jar B 5; Jar C 30 – Need 15 Claudia J. Stanny

16. Functional Fixedness • Failure to recognize multiple uses of objects typically used for other purposes • Duncker (1945) candle problem • Identify 10 uses for this object: Claudia J. Stanny

17. What is Creativity? • Creativity is frequently defined in terms of the characteristics of creative products: • Solutions to problems • Artistic creations • Characteristics of creative solutions & ideas • Novel • High quality • Useful • Appropriate to context Claudia J. Stanny

18. Creativity • Mechanisms for creative thought • Role of special processes such as incubation • Ordinary cognitive processes also contribute to creative results • Directed remembering – conscious retrieval of information under constraints • Noticing – attention to errors during edits/revisions • Flexibility – recognizing and categorizing objects in multiple ways • Thinker is motivated to search extensively for information that meets criteria of novelty • Evaluate potential solution or new idea • Will it solve the problem? • Will it create undesirable outcomes? Claudia J. Stanny

19. Measuring Aptitude for Creativity • Divergent Thinking Approach (Guilford) • Focus on ability to generate multiple and varied responses to a single prompt • Investment Theory of Creativity (Sternberg) • Produce a new idea when no one else is interested (“buy low”) • When idea becomes popular (“sell high”), move on to a new project • Focus on characteristics of creative individuals and the environments that support them Claudia J. Stanny

20. Remote Associates Test Assumes creativity requires discovering new relations between concepts. Find a single word that is related to all three of the following words: Claudia J. Stanny

21. Attributes that Promote Creativity • Characteristics of the individual: • Intelligence • Knowledge (expertise in area of creativity) • Motivation • Appropriate thinking style • Appropriate personality • Characteristics of the environment • Encouraging environment Claudia J. Stanny

22. Factors that Influence Creativity • Intrinsic motivation • High intrinsic motivation is associated with higher levels of creativity • Greater persistence at tasks required to generate multiple solutions and struggle with obstacles • Extrinsic motivation • Extrinsic motivational pressures such as formal evaluations & offers of rewards reduce the quality of creative products generated (especially if the reward system limits options) • Useful for ensuring people meet deadlines Claudia J. Stanny