Carbon and biological Macromolecules

1. Carbon and biological Macromolecules ZakkDrumm Torpey White Ryan O’Kane

2. Carbon • Carbon forms bonds between other elements to make compounds essential for life • The study of carbon compounds is known as organic chemistry

3. Carbon bonds • Carbon has four valence electrons so it can accept four more electrons when bonding • Each carbon atom makes four bonds • Known as tetravalence • Tetrehedral bonds have an angle of 109.5 degrees

4. Miller’s Experiment • Miller set up an experiment to mimic early earth

5. Bonds cont. • Common carbon molecules • Carbon dioxide- CO2 • Urea- CO(NH2)2 • Glucose- C6H12O6

6. Carbon Chains • Carbon chains form the backbone of living organisms • Carbon chains vary greatly in size and shape

7. Hydrocarbons • Hydrocarbons are molecules that are made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms. • Many organic molecules have long hydrocarbon chains, such as fats

8. Isomers • Isomers are molecules with the same formula but different shapes • Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of molecules • Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but different spatial arrangements • Enantiomers are mirror images of each other.

9. Properties of molecules • The properties of organic molecules not only depend on the Skelton, but also on functional groups

10. Functional groups • Functional groups are components of molecules most commonly found in chemical reactions • The number and arrangement of each functional group gives each carbon chain unique properties.

11. Functional groups cont.

12. Functional groups • ATP is a phosphate group responsible for most of the energy used by cells • ATP consists of an adenosine molecule attached to three phosphate groups.

13. Biological molecules • There are four classes of large biological molecules, Lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. • Macromoleculesare large molecules composed of thousands of connected atoms. • The function of these molecules is directly related to their structure

14. Polymers • Polymers are long chain like molecules made from smaller building blocks • Those building blocks are known as monomers • Three of the four classes of molecules are polymers • Carbohydrates • Proteins • Nucleic acids

15. Hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis • Hydrolysis is the degradation of proteins by adding HOH • Dehydration synthesis is the synthesis of molecules by removing HOH

16. Carbohydrates • Carbohydrates include sugars and their monomers • Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars • Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides • And polysaccharides are made up of many monosaccharides

17. Monosaccharides • The formulas for monosaccharides are usually multiples of CH2O • Glucose is one of the most common, and has a formula of C6H12O6

18. Monosaccharides Cont. • Monosaccharides serve as fuel for cells and are also used for building blocks of more complex sugars

19. Disaccharides • Disaccharides are formed by brining two monosaccharides together using dehydration synthesis. • The bond between the sugars is known as a glycosidic linkage.

20. Disaccharides cont.

21. Polysaccharides • Polysaccharides are the polymers of sugars • Their functions are determined by the sugars that construct them

22. Storage polysacchardies • Storage polysaccharides are used for storing energy in organisms • Starch is the plant storage polysaccharide • Glycogen is the animal storage polysaccharide

23. Starch • Starch is made up of glucasemonosaccharides that have been linked together. • There are two forms, amylose and amylopectin, amylose is not branchd and amylopectin is branched.

24. Glycogen • Glycogen is also composed entirely of glucose • Glycogen differs from starch in the fact that it is more branched • It is stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals

25. Cellulose • Cellulose is another polysaccharide found in plants. • It is also constructed from glucose but uses the beta form and not the alpha form • This makes it indigestible by the human system

26. Cellulose V. Starch

27. Lipids • Lipids are the only class of molecule that does not form a polymer • Lipids are hydrophobic molecules because they consist mainly of carbohydrates that form covalent non-polar bonds. • Three main types, fats, phospholipids, and steroids

28. Fats • Fats consist of glycerol and fatty acids • Glycerol is an alcohol with three carbons • Fatty acids are long carbohydrate chains.

29. Fats cont. • Saturated fats have no double bonds and are filled with a many hydrogens as possible. • Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds and do not have all the hydrogens they can bond to

30. Phospholipids • Phospholipids are lipids that have hydro phobic fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic head. • They match up tail to tail to form a phospholipidbilayer • This bilayer makes up the cell membrane of most cells.

31. Steroids • Steroidsare lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. • Cholesterol, a common steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes.

32. Proteins • Proteinfunctionsinclude structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, defense against foreign substances, and organic catalysts (enzymes). • Proteins are polymers called polypeptides. • Polypeptides are constructed using amino acids

33. Enzymes • Enzymes are large proteins that act as catalysts to speed up the rate of chemical reactions in cells • Enzymes are specific with molecules in the chemical reaction • Enzymes can perform their functions repeatedly

34. Polypeptides • Polypeptidesare polymers built from a set of 20 amino acids • The sequenceofamino acids determines a protein’s structure • A protein’s structure determines its function

35. Amino acids • Amino acids are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups attached to a central carbon • Amino acids differ in their properties due to variable side chains, called R groups • There are 20 different amino acids because there are 20 different side chains

36. Amino acids cont Amino group Carboxyl group

37. Amino acids cont.

38. Bonding of Amino acids • Amino acids are linked by covalent bonds called peptide bonds • A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids • Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids that determines function • They are bonded through dehydration synthesis

39. Protein structure • There are four levels of protein structure, amino acid sequence, folds and helixes, secondary structure folding, bonding of tertiary structures. • Primary structures of proteins are the sequences of amino acids in the chain • Primary structure determines secondary structure

40. Protein Structure Cont. • Secondary structure is on of two things, beta pleated sheets and alpha helixes • These are determined by amino acids in the sequence • These are folded to form the tertiary structure • The tertiary structures are bonded to other tertiary structures to form quaternary structures

41. Structure Cont.

42. Sickle cell • A slight change in a proteins DNA can change its primary • This can affect a protein’s structure and ability to function. • Sickle-cell disease, an inherited blood disorder, results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin

43. Environmental factors in structure • physical and chemical conditions can affect protein structure • Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other environmental factors can cause a protein to unravel and loose its native shape • This shape change is called denaturation • A denatured protein is biologically inactive

44. Determining structure • Scientists use X-ray crystallography to determine a protein’s structure • Another method is nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, which does not require protein crystallization • Bioinformatics uses computer programs to predict protein structure from amino acid sequences

45. Nucleic acids • Nucleic acids are polymers called polynucleotides • Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called nucleotides • Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group • The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a nucleoside

46. Nucleotide Monomers • There are two groups of nitrogenous bases: • Pyrimidines: C T (U) (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) have a single six-membered ring • Purines: A G (adenine and guanine) have a 6-membered ring fused to a 5-membered ring • In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose • In RNA, the sugar is ribose. • Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group. Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar