What is Motivation?

1. What is Motivation? Forces coming from within a person that account for the willful direction, intensity, and persistence of the person’s efforts toward achieving specific goals, where achievement is not due solely to ability or to environmental factors

2. Theories of Motivation • Content Theories • Maslow’s need hierarchy • Alderfer’s ERG theory • McClelland’s need theory • Herzberg’s two-factor theory • Process Theories • Expectancy theory • Equity theory • Goal-setting theory

3. Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow Maslow's Need Hierarchy

4. Self-Actualization Social and Belongingness Needs Must work your way up… Safety Needs Physiological Needs Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Esteem Needs

5. Clayton Alderfer Alderfer's ERG Theory

6. ERG Theory ExistenceNeeds RelatednessNeeds GrowthNeeds Satisfaction and Progression Frustration and Regression

7. Self- Actualization Esteem Needs Growth Needs Social and Belongingness Needs Relatedness Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs Existence Needs Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory Comparison of Two Theories Adapted from Exhibit 6-1: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory Compared

8. Theory of Needs David C. McClelland McClelland’s

9. McClelland’s Theory of Needs Power Achievement Affiliation

10. Conclusion • People with a high need for institutional power are particularly good at • Increasing morale • Creating clear expectations • Getting others to work for the good of the organization • Effective managers have both a high need for achievement and a high need for institutional power

11. Managers Over the Edge ManagerialAdvice • Why do you think there have been changes in the need for achievement over the last 20+ years? • Do you agree or disagree with the two reasons (coerciveness and shortcuts) given that can cause problems? • It is suggested that understanding needs and managing needs are two guidelines that will help high-achievement managers. Do you agree or disagree with this idea?

12. Frederick Herzberg Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

13. Two-Factor Theory • Emphasizes two sets of rewards or outcomes – those related to job satisfaction and those related to job dissatisfaction • The two sets are not opposite ends of the same continuum but are independent states • Job factors leading to satisfaction are different from those leading to dissatisfaction, and vice versa

14. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory HygieneFactors Motivators

15. Motivators Hygiene Factors Two-Factor Theory When increased, lead to greater satisfaction When deficient, lead to greater dissatisfaction • Achievement • Recognition • Responsibility • Opportunity for advancement or promotion • Challenging work • Potential for personal growth • Pay • Technical supervision • Working conditions • Company policies and procedures • Interpersonal relationships with others • Status • Security

16. Process Theories Expectancy Equity Goal-Setting

17. MF = Motivational Force E = Expectancy I = Instrumentality V = Valence Victor Vroom I1 I2 I3 Expectancy Theory MF = E x  (I x V) V1 Outcome V2 Effort Performance Outcome E MF = V3 Outcome Adapted from Exhibit 6-2: Expectancy Theory

18. Expectancy Theory To increase motivation • Heighten expectancy by increasing associates’ beliefs that exerting effort will lead to higher levels of performance • Increase instrumentalities by clearly linking high performance to outcomes • Increase valence by providing outcomes that are highly valued

19. Equity Theory Motivation is based on a person’s assessment of the ratio of the outcomes received (pay, status) for inputs on the job (effort, ability) compared to the same ratio for a comparison other My Outcomes Other’s Outcomes vs. My inputs Other’s Inputs

20. Equity Theory Perceived inequity, employees may: • Increase or decrease inputs • Change their outcomes • Distort perceptions of inputs and/or outcomes • Distort perceptions of other’s inputs and/or outcomes • Change the referent others • Leave the organization

21. Reactions to Inequity Sensitives – pay a great deal of attention to outcome-input ratios, motivated to resolve any inequity – favorable or unfavorable Benevolents – tolerant of inequity that is unfavorable but not comfortable with inequity that favors them Entitleds – do not tolerate unfavorable inequity but are comfortable with inequity that favors them

22. Reactions to Equity Feelings of equity frequently lead to outcome satisfaction and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Organizational Citizenship – an associate’s willingness to engage in organizationally important behaviors that go beyond prescribed job duties – helping co-workers, expending extra effort, etc.

23. Distributive Justice A form of justice that relates to perceptions of fairness in outcomes. Often tied to perceptions of inequity.

24. Formal grievance procedures Based on accurate information Procedures free from bias Ethical code Procedures applied consistently Treated with respect Procedural Justice Voice in the decision process Given reasons for decisions Procedural Justice The degree to which people think the procedures used to determine outcomes are fair. Some rules:

25. Edwin Locke Goal-Setting Theory Challenging and specific goals increase human performance because they affectattention, effort, and persistence. To beeffective, managers should address: • Goal difficulty • Goal specificity • Goal commitment • Participation in setting goals • Feedback

26. Factors Increasing the Desirability of Attaining a Given Goal Factors Increasing the Perceived Ability of Attaining a Given Goal Factors Affecting Goal Commitment Adapted From Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment