1. PSYC 1000 Lecture 30

2. Working and Short Term Memory • Working Memory (includes Short–term memory) • Attended information from Sensory or Long-Term Memory • Look up phone number in phone book • Think of phone number in LTM • Stored in LTM, in STM when we think of it (consciousness?) • Properties of STM • Limited in duration • Longer than sensory memory • But, still only 15-30 sec, or somewhat longer at most, unless continuous rehearsal is allowed • Limited capacity: 7 +/- 2?

3. STM Strategies • Rehearsal • Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information • Interference and lack of rehearsal are related to decreased memory ability • Chunking • The process of reconfiguring items by grouping them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle (or patterns based on LTM) • Chunk = meaningful unit of information • Expertise can increase chunking ability • May occur automatically, especially after much practice

4. Working Memory • Working memory • Resource involved in tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension • Foundation for moment-by-moment fluidity of thought and action & integration of information • Three components (Baddeley): • Phonological loop • Visuospatial sketchpad • Central executive

6. Long-Term Memory (LTM) • Most sophisticated of memory systems • Extremely large capacity (limitless??) • Some information retained for very long periods of time (perhaps permanently?) • Much school learning involves LTM • Some phenomenal demonstrations of LTM • Different Kinds/Components of LTM • Our primary focus will be on Explicit LTM • Storage, Retention, Retrieval

8. LTM - Storage • Effortful Processing • Requires attention and conscious effort • Many Kinds of Effortful Processing • Repetition or Rehearsal • Processing for Meaning • Elaboration by Imagery, Chunking, … • Organization by Relating pieces of information to one another

9. LTM - Storage • Rehearsal • Conscious repetition of information • Maintain information in consciousness (STM) • Encodes information for storage in LTM • Can benefit, but not most effective strategy

10. Retrieval Cues • Retrieval cues • The stimuli available as you search for a particular memory (can be externally or internally generated) • Two tests of memory: • Recall = reproduction of information to which you were previously exposed • Recognition = realization that a certain stimulus is one you have seen or heard before • Recognition cues often stronger & more straightforward

11. Retrieval Cues • Declarative memories differ with respect to cues necessary to retrieve them (Tulving) • Episodic memories • Memory for things you have personally experienced • Semantic memories • General, categorical memories • Not linked to specific episodes where memory was obtained (e.g., brushing your teeth)

12. Context & Encoding • Encoding specificity • Memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding • Similar to the concept of state-dependent learning from classical and operant conditioning • Context-dependent memory improves recall • Retrieval can be altered by the context and distinctiveness of the experience being recalled (contextual distinctiveness)

13. LTM - Storage • Rehearsal and the Serial Position Effect • Primacy Effect: Good memory for early words (LTM) • Early words rehearsed more (below)

14. Encoding & Retrieval Processes • Levels of processing theory(Craik & Lockhart, 1972) • Information processed at a deeper level is more likely to be retained • Structural encoding = paying attention to the structural properties of words & how it looks (shallow) • Phonological (phonemic) encoding = paying attention to the sound qualities of words (intermediary) • Semantic encoding = paying attention to the meaning of the words (deepest processing)

15. LTM - Encoding • Depth or Levels of Processing • Participants perform different amounts or kinds of processing on to-be-remembered material • e.g., study word “DOG” or “dog” • Visual Processing of word: Is word printed in upper or lower case letters? • Acoustic Processing: Does word rhyme with “log”? • Semantic Processing: Is it a kind of animal? • Deeper processing produces better memory • i.e., Semantic better than Acoustic better than Visual