Emotion: Cognitive and Biological influences

Emotion: Cognitive and Biological influences To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? 1.LeDoux – short and long routes theory; 2. Lazarus Appraisal theory; 3.Schachter- Singer – cognitive labeling theory

Do you remember when? • Do you remember where you where when the attack happened on the twin towers? • Your first day of school? • You probably remember these events when others, no matter how significant, may be forgotten • Why do we clearly remember some events and forget others?

The key appears to be that we remember better those experiences that involve emotions • Emotions are rich and diverse, and they are often what makes the experience something special • The famous brain researcher Antonio Damasio (1994) explains that emotions arepurely physical signals of the body which react to external stimuli. • Feelings arise when the brain interprets these emotions.

Emotions consist of three components : 1. Physiological changes, such as activation of the of the Hypothalamic ANS and HPAC pathways that are not conscious. 2. The persons own subjective feeling of an emotion (e.g. happiness) 3. Associated behavior, such as smiling or running away (Damasio, 1994)

Biological factors • According to brain researchers, emotions serve as a guide to evaluate how important situations are, and it is not necessarily a conscious process • Cognitive psychologists like Lazarus and Folkman (1984) have suggested that it is not the emotions as such that is important, but how people appraise the situation and cope with it. • Cognitive appraisal is simply an interpretation of the physiological signals • A perceived dangerous event (stressor) will result in a physiological response known as fight or flight, which prepares the individual for direct action to confront the danger or avoid it, and a Psychologicalcognitive appraisal of the arousal – that is a decision of what to do, based on previous experiences (hippocampus)

Biological factors in emotions: The LONG and SHORT route to the stress response system • The amygdala is a small structure in the limbic system that appears to be critical in the brains emotional circuits • It is also believed to play a critical role in emotional memories (e.g. Clive Wearing’samygdala remained intact) • Studies of animals and humans indicate that the stress response system is activated (HPAC/ ANS) when strong emotions are evoked

Link to the bio LOA • Find your notes on the stress response. • Review the two ‘loops’ which are activated in the face of a stressor. • With a partner identify an example of an emotional response. • Apply the diagram to the example and explain.

The thin arrows show the hypothalamic-ANS-Adrenal medulla pathway (colour in green) The thick arrows show the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal cortex (HPAC) Pathway (colour in red) Stressor Higher Brain Centres (cortex & limbic systems) This is where the LONG ROUTE (APPRASIAL by neo cortex/ hippocampus) or SHORT ROUTE (direct to thalamus to HPAC/ Hypo ANS pathways) is activated Activates The ANS sympathetic subdivision Via the brainstem Hypothalamus CRH Hormone Brainstem Pituitary gland ACTH in bloodstream Metabolic effects on the body (higher heart rate & blood pressure to get oxygen to muscles) Neural control via autonomic nervous system Corticosteroids In bloodstream Adrenal cortex Adrenal medulla Adrenaline and Noradrenaline in Bloodstream (increases heart Rate & blood pressure)

The LONG and SHORT route to the stress response system • In his book, The Emotional BrainLeDoux (1999) describes TWO biological pathways of emotions in the brain • The first is the short routethat goes from the thalamus (relay station between cortex and lower brain structures) to the amygdala (in the limbic system), before activating the stress response system • The second is the long routethat passes via the neo cortex (higher brain centers) and the hippocampus (memory) before it results in an emotional response. • The amygdala receives input from sensory processing area in the neo cortex and the thalamus, and projects these to areas in the Brainstem (Hypothalamic ANS Pathway) and the Hypothalamus (HPAC Pathway) • It is the connection between the different brain structures that allows the amygdalato transform sensory information into emotional signals and initiate and control emotional responses

Le Doux Short Route Long Route stressor stressor thalamus thalamus Amygdala Amygdala Neocortex/ Hippocampus (appraisal) Stress response system (HPAC/ Hypo ANS) Amygdala Stress response system (HPAC/ Hypo ANS)

Application E.g. A woman is walking home, late in the evening. At the next corner, she sees a man waiting. She just read in the newspaper a story about a women being raped, so she is afraid and her heart begins to race. She walks slowly as to if to prepare for what may come. This is the physiological arousal, the fight or flight response which prepares for a reaction to a stressful experience. • When the women is just about to pass the man, he comes toward he saying, “excuse me, I am lost. Could you tell me where Linner Street is?”. The woman realizes she has misjudged the situation and relaxes/ she tells the man where the street is and continues walking calmly to her home. • How can this be explained in terms of the short and long route?

Suggestion…. • The emotional stimulus (a man who could be a potential aggressor) is first processed in the thalamus which sends a signal to the amygdala. • The perception of the potential stressor enables the amygdala to send signals to the body (HPAC/ Hypothalamic ANS pathways) so that it can prepare for action (SHORT DIRECT ROUTE ACTIVATED). • At the same time, the thalamus sends information via the indirect pathway to the neo cortex and hippocampus for closer inspection. (LONG – INDIRECT ROUTE ACTIVATED) • This results in a more detailed evaluation of the stimulus – an appraisal – and the outcome of this is sent to the amygdala. • In the example above, the woman became aware that there is no danger, so she relaxes (parasympathetic activation of the ANS pathway). *Most of these processes are non-conscious.*

According to LeDoux (1999), the advantage of having a direct and indirect pathways to the amygdala and the stress response system is flexibility in response. • In the case of danger, the fast and direct pathway is useful because it saves time. This could be important in matters of life and death. • On the other hand, the long pathway allows for a more thorough evaluation of a situation, which can help people and animals to avoid inappropriate responses to situations.

Questions to check your understanding: • According to Damasio emotions are ‘purely…..’ • What are the three components of emotion? • What is an appraisal? • What brain structures are involved in LeDoux’s long route biological emotional response? • What brain structures are involved in the short route of LeDoux’s biological emotional response? • What does the indirect or long pathway involve that the short pathway does not? • What is the advantage of having two pathways?

Reflection: Based on LeDoux’s (1999) theory of a ‘long and short route’ biological pathways of emotion in the brain, to what extent do biological factors interact in emotion? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Schachter and Singer – cognitive labeling theory of emotion - see PDF on blog

Simulation and Key study sheet • In a group of 5 prepare a simulation of the study undertaken by S & S • For homework prepare a KSS of Schachter and Singer’s (1962)

Cognitive factors in emotion: Appraisal • According to Lazarus (1975) appraisals are evaluations related to how the situation will impact on ones personal well-being. • Positive emotions emerge if the appraisal assess potential benefit • Negative emotions emerge in the appraisal assess potential harm. • Lazarus (1975) claimed that cognitive appraisal is an important part of peoples reaction to emotional stress and stressful experiences are not only physiological but also psychological

People are psychological beings who are not simply passively responding to the world, they actively interpret what is happening to them (a principle of the cog LOA) • Lazarus & Folkman (1984) suggested that an individuals experience of stress can be moderated by a number of factors, which include appraisal of threat and appraisal of ones own resources for dealing with the stressor. • They are influence by personal characteristics such as motivation, beliefs about ones self and the world, and environmental variables such as the nature of the danger and the strength of ones social networks.

Folkman and Lazarus (1988) found that people use different strategies in stressful situations. One of them the called problem focused coping, which aimed to change the problematic situation that causes emotional stress. • They called the other emotion focused copingwhere the purpose is to handle the emotions rather than changing the problematic situation. Some of the methods used here are escape, self control over expression of emotions, seeking social support, or attempting to provide a positive reappraisal of the situation.

Research support for Lazarus (1975) Appraisal theory: Speisman et al. (1964) study of the manipulation of emotional appraisal • Several studies have supported the suggestion that appraisal can have an effect on the way people cope with emotional arousal. In a classic experiment Speisman et al (1964) showed participants a film called “sub incision” . The film showed initiation ceremony involving unpleasant genital surgery – a right of passage for young adolescent boys in a primitive society. The aim of the study was to investigate if peoples emotional reaction the unpleasant film could be manipulated. An independent measures design was used. • This was done by showing the film with three different soundtracks. In condition one, the ‘trauma’ condition, included a soundtrack which emphasized pain and mutilation. In the second condition, the ‘denial’ condition, the soundtrack showed the participants willing and happy. In condition three, the ‘intellectualization’ condition, the soundtrack gave the anthropological interpretation of the ceremony. • The experiment deliberately manipulated the participants appraisal of the situation and evaluated the effect of the type of appraisal on their emotional response using a self report questionnaire, and also a heart rate monitor.

The results of self report questionnaires and heart rate monitoring showed that participants reacted more emotionally to the trauma condition (higher heart rate, and responses showing high emotional responses on the self report questionnaire). This seems to support Lazarus's theory. • Maybe it is not the events themselves that illicit emotional stress, but rather the individual interpretation or appraisal of these events • This could also be seen to as support to LeDoux’s theory of two biological pathways in the brain, as cognitive appraisal involves the hippocampus and neo cortex. • You might ask if a study like this can say anything about real life. It was a laboratory study with the manipulation of variables which always raises the issue of artificiality. There were also ethical issues involved here, because the research deliberately used deception and put participants in unpleasant situation. In conclusion, cognitive seems to influence the emotional reaction, so this study could then illustrate how cognitive and biological factors interact with emotion.

Summary……to what extent do Cognition and Biology Interact in Emotion • Complete the following table in your notes • Write a paragraph in response to the LO above. Bullet point relevant research studies and what factors they reveal as being influential in emotion.

Reflection: Based on Lazarus (1975) theory of a cognitive appraisal of emotion and the research support from Speisman et al. (1964) and Rubin et al.’s (2000) study to what extent do cognitive factors interact in emotion? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Identify an analogy • According to le Doux emotion is like….. • According to Schachter and Singer emotion is like….. • According to Lazarus emotion is like…….

Cognition & Emotion: Questions to check your understanding: • According to Lazarus (1975) What is the difference between positive and negative appraisals? • How is appraisal both physiological and psychological? • What did Lazarus and Folkman (1984) indicate about the factors that can influence how we appraise a stressful situation? • what is the difference between the two different types of coping that Folkman and Lazarus (1988) identified? • Give the aims, procedures, findings and conclusions of Speisman et al. (1964) study of manipulation of emotional appraisal • What was the IV and the DV in the study? • What type of design was used? • Identify and explain three ethical issues that are raised by Speisman et al. study • Give two additional evaluative points that relate to Speisman et al.’s study • What were the aims, procedures and findings of Rubin et al.s (2000) study?

Flashbulb memory • Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evj6q0eCdd8

Introduction: • The interaction between emotion and the cognitive process of memory can be seen through research into flashbulb memory. • There is evidence to suggest that emotion plays a significant role in memory, and the amygdala appears to play an important role in emotional responses… thus having an impact on memory. • However, the debate still centers around whether flashbulb memories are a special kind or memory, or just as unreliable as other types of memory.

Flashbulb memory: Definition • This phenomenon was originally described by Brown & Kulik (1977) and they defined them as: • Exceptionally vivid memories • Usually of important events with emotional significance • Resistant to forgetting over time • The debate centres on whether they are a special case, or the same as other memories

What qualifies as a flashbulb memory? • Typical ‘flashbulb’ events are dramatic, unexpected, shocking • E.g. disasters, deaths of prominent figures (esp. if unexpected), momentous events. E.g. • Terrorist attacks on the World Trade Centre • Death of Kennedy, Princess Diana • Fall of Berlin Wall

What is remembered in a Flashbulb Memory? These are the aspects that Brown and Kulick (1977) propose are remembered vividly for flashbulb memories: • Where you were? • What you were doing? • How you were informed? • How you reacted? • How others around you reacted? They propose that there is a biological memory mechanism which leads to these exceptionally vivid memories

Brown and Kulik (1977) Flashbulb Memory: Research support (80 participants)

Research into Flashbulb Memory • Research consists of Interviews and surveys about dramatic events: • Brown & Kulik (1977) first to describe this type of memory, they interviewed US participants tended to have vivid memories of political assassinations • In their study, all participants had good recall of Kennedy assassination, BUT they found that black participants had a better recall of Medgar Evers (a civil rights worker) death • This shows importance of relevance of the information – culture seems to influence things • Physiological arousal may also be important (the Amydgala seems to play a key role here)

Challenges to the concept of Flashbulb memory….. • Neisser (1982) proposed that the enduring nature of FBM is a result of rehearsal and reworking after the event • We use the conventions of storytelling recounting important events – FBMs are just as susceptible to distortion as other memories. • Its difficult to check the accuracy of flashbulb memories – nothing different about them • E.g Neisser himself was sure he was listening to the baseball when pearl harbour was bombed in WWII – but it couldn’t have been possible because it wasn’t in the baseball season • Furthermore, The McCloskey et al. (1988) study also proposes that flashbulb memories are not special memories (see key study)

Flashbulb Memory: Research criticism

Evaluation: Flashbulb memories • Relatively little evidence for FBMs as a distinct memory process • They ‘feel’ accurate (we are confident in recall) but are just as prone to forgetting & change as other episodic memories • Evidence is still mixed.

Reflection: Based on brown and Kulik’s (1977) study and McCloskey’s (1988) study flashbulb memory, evaluate how flashbulb memory influences the cognitive process of memory. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Questions to check your understanding • What is a flashbulb memory? • Which researchers first proposed the concept of flashbulb memories? • What method did Brown & Kulick (1977) use in their study? • Make two evaluative points for the Brown and Kulik (1977) study • What conclusions did McCloskey et al (1988) come to about flashbulb memories? • What did Neisser (1982) propose? • Outline some research that refers to the importance of the amygdala in memory. • What conclusion can we come to about emotion and memory by examining the research into flashbulb memories?

SAQ: • Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process • Unpack the question – what is it asking? • What should you include? • How will you answer this type of question? • How will you structure it?

SAQ Outline.. • Explain how you will answer the question – what theory/research will you use. • The Theory - Explain what FBM Theory and ‘Now Print’ – The main question – are FBMs a special type of memory? • Support for FBM - Brown & Kulick (1977) Interview study + Evaluation • The importance of the amygdala • Phelps et al. (2004) 9/11 fMRI study + Evaluation • Counter claims – McCloskey (1988) + Evaluation. • Connect back to question – Is the FBM theory valid? In light of the research…

Emotion: Cognitive and Biological influences