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The Human Body: An Orientation

The Human Body: An Orientation. 1. ANATOMY - the study of the structures of an organism. A. Gross Anatomy - structures as seen by unaided eye B. Histology ("tissues" "to study") - structures that can be seen with the microscope such as cells and tissues

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The Human Body: An Orientation

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  1. The Human Body: An Orientation 1

  2. ANATOMY - the study of the structures of an organism A. Gross Anatomy - structures as seen by unaided eye B. Histology ("tissues" "to study") - structures that can be seen with the microscope such as cells and tissues 1. Cytology - study of cell structure/function C. Developmental Anatomy - study of the anatomy of the developing organism 1. Embryology - fertilization to third month of fetus D. Systemic Anatomy - study of individual organ system E. Regional Anatomy - study of structures in particular area F. Pathology ("disease" "to study") - study of changes in structure due to disease/injury

  3. Physiology Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the cellular or molecular level • Renal physiology – kidney function • Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system • Cardiovascular physiology – operation of the heart and blood vessels

  4. Principle of Complementarity A. Anatomy - study of structure Physiology - study of function B. Structure determines Function Function depends upon Structure C. Charles Darwin- "Origin of the Species" (1858) Changes in structure affect function: basis of evolution of all organisms

  5. Levels of Organization of Organisms A. atoms (elements of periodic table) B. molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid) C. cells (epithelial, bone, muscle, nervous) D. tissues (epithelial, connective, muscular) E. organ (stomach, heart, brain, lung) F.organ system (muscular, skeletal, digestive, nervous) G. whole organism (each different species)

  6. Levels of Structural Organization Smooth muscle cell Molecules Cellular levelCells are made up of molecules 2 Atoms Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules 1 Smooth muscle tissue Heart Tissue levelTissues consist of similar types of cells 3 Cardiovascular system Blood vessels Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Blood vessel (organ) Organismal levelThe human organism is made up of many organ systems 6 Connective tissue Organ levelOrgans are made up of different types of tissues 4 Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of different organs that work together closely 5 Figure 1.1

  7. Summary of Common prefixes and suffixes 1. Prefixes Indicating Location, Direction, and Tendency • Prefix Meaning Example_________________ • Ab- from, away abnormal - away from normal • Ad- to, near, toward adrenal - near the kindey • Ante- before antepartum - before delivery of child • Brady- slow bradycardia - slow heart beat • Brev- short brevity - in a short time • Circum- around circumocular - around the eye • Co- with, together coordinate - work together • Con- with, together congenital - with birth • Contra- against contraindicated - not indicated • Counter- against counterirritant - against irritation • Dis- apart from disarticulated - taking a joint apart • Ect- outside ectonuclear - outside the nucleus • End- within endocardium - lining inner heart

  8. Epi- upon, on top of epidermis - upon the skin • Ex- out from exhalation - breathe out • Hypo- under, lower hypodermic - under the skin • Hyper- above, higher hyperactive - higher level activity • Im- not immature - not mature • In- not incurable - not curable • Infra- under, below infrapatellar - below the knee • Peri- around pericardium - sac around the heart • Post- after postmortem - after death • Pre- before prenatal - before birth • Pro- before prognosis - a fore-knowing • Super- above, on top superciliary - above the eyebrow • Supra- above, on top suprapubic - above the pubic bone • Sym- with, together symphony - sounds played together • Syn- with, together synarthrosis - union of bones • Trans- through, across transurethral - through the urethra

  9. 2. Prefixes Indicating Number and Measurement • Prefix Meaning Example____________________________ • Uni- one unicycle - one wheel • Mono- one mononuclear - one nucleus • Bi- two bilateral - two sides • Bin- two binocular - two eyes • Di- two dicephalic - two heads • Ter- three tertiary - the third part or stage • Tri- three trilobar - three lobes • Quadr- four quadriceps - muscle w four heads • Tetra- four tetracylcine - four-ringed molecule • Poly- many polydactyly - many digits (more than 5) • Oligo- few oligosaccharide - few sugars linked together • Micro- small microscope - equipment to view small things • Macro- large macrophage - large eating cell • Mega- great, enormous megadontia - huge teeth

  10. 3. Prefixes Denoting Organs, Structures, Things • Prefix Meaning Example____________________________ • Acoust- sound acoustics - quality of sound • Aud- ear, hear audition - to hear someone • Abdomin/o abdomen abdominal - relating to the abdomen • Acr/o extremity, limbs acromegaly - abnormally large limbs • Blast/o early, embryonic blastocyte - embryonic type cell • Aden/o gland adenopathy - disease of a gland • Angi/o vessel angiogram - picture of a vessel • Arthr/o joint arthritis - inflammation of a joint • Bucc/o cheek buccolabial - relating to cheek and lip • Cardi/o heart cardiology - study of the heart • Corp- body corpus callosum - connecting body • Chondr/o cartilage chondrocyte - cartilage cell • Cephal/o head cephalic - relating to the head • Cyst/o bladder cystoscopy - view of the bladder • Cyt/o cell cytokinesis - cell movement

  11. Dent/o tooth dental - referring to teeth • Dermat/o skin dermatitis - skin inflammation • Duoden/o duodenum duodenal - relating to the duodenum • Encephal/o brain encephalitis - brain inflammation • Gastr/o stomach gastrointestinal - stomach and intestine • Hepat/o liver hepatitis - liver inflammation • Gloss/o tongue glossopathy - tongue disease • Glute- buttocks gluteus minimus - small buttocks muscle • Laryng/o larynx laryngitis - larynx inflammation • My/o muscle myocardium - heart muscle

  12. Nephr/o kidney nephrologist - one who studies kidneys • Neur/o nerve neurosurgeon - surgeon of nervous system • Oste/o bone osteocyte - bone cell • Ot/o ear otitis media - middle ear inflammation • Ophthalm/o eye exophthalmos - eyes bulge out • Path/o disease pathological - relating to disease • Pneumon/o lung pneumonia - condition of the lung • Rhin/o nose rhinoplasty - reform the nose • Stomat/o mouth, opening stomatitis - mouth inflammation • Thorac/o chest or thorax thoracocentesis - puncture of the thorax

  13. 4. Suffixes Denoting Relations, Conditions, and Agents • Suffix Meaning Example____________________________ • -ac related to cardiac - related to the heart • -ious related to contagious - communicable by contact • -ic related to pyloric - related to pyloric valve of stomach • -ism condition mutism - condition of being mute • -osis condition scoliosis - S-shaped condition of backbone • -tion condition constipation - constant blockage condition • -ist agent (a person) opthalmologist - eye doctor • -or agent operator • -er agent examiner • -ician agent physician

  14. 5. Suffixes Used for Surgical and Operative Terminology • Suffix Meaning Example____________________________ • -centesis to puncture amniocentesis - puncture the amnion (fluid) • -ectomy to cut out and remove appendectomy - cut out & remove appendix • -ostomy to cut and form opening colostomy - opening to drain the colon • -otomy to cut or slice tracheotomy - cut the trachea • -pexy to fix or repair gastropexy - repair the stomach • -plasty to reform or repair rhinoplasty - reform the nose • -rraphy to suture, sew ateriorraphy - suture an artery • -scopy to view otoscope - instrument to view ear

  15. 6. Other Suffixes Used in Anatomy • Suffix Meaning Example____________________________ • -algia pain neuralgia - nerve pain • -cide kill or destroy germicide - substance that kills germs • -emia of the blood cholesterolemia - cholesterol in the blood • -gram writing or record electrocardiogram - record of heart action • -graph recording instrument electrocardiograph - records the heart • -itis inflammation appendicitis - appendix inflammation • -ology the study of ophthalmology - study of the eye • -oma tumor lymphoma - tumor of lymphatics • -orrhea flow menorrhea - flow during menstruation • -malacia soft osteomalacia - bone softening • -phasia speech dysphasia - slurred or blunted speech • -phobia fear arachnophobia - fear of spiders

  16. Start Reading and Studying today! Learn your prefixes and suffixes!!!!! It will make learning anatomy much easier!!!!

  17. Anatomical Position Subject stands erect with feet flat on the ground and palms facing forward Figure 1.7a

  18. Directional Terms 1. superior (cephalic) : inferior (caudal) 2. anterior (ventral) : posterior (dorsal) 3. medial : lateral 4. ipsilateral (same side) : contralateral (opposite) 5. proximal : distal 6. superficial : deep 7. parietal : visceral

  19. Directional Terms Table 1.1

  20. Directional Terms Table 1.1

  21. Regional Terms: Anterior View • Axial – head, neck, and trunk • Appendicular – appendages or limbs • Specific regional terminology Figure 1.7a

  22. Regional Terms: Posterior View Figure 1.7b

  23. Body Planes 1. sagittal - divides into right and left parts a. midsagittal - right down the middle b. parasagittal - away from the midline 2. frontal (coronal) - divides anterior & posterior 3. horizontal (transverse) - divide sup. & inferior

  24. Body Planes Figure 1.8

  25. Body Cavities 1. Dorsal Body Cavity a. cranial cavity (brain) b. vertebral cavity (spinal cord) 2. Ventral Body Cavity (viscera - organs found here) a. thoracic cavity i. pleural cavity (space separating the parietal pleura and visceral pleura of lungs - like balloon pushed in with fist) ii. mediastinum - all contents of thoracic cavity except the lungs (e.g. heart, esophagus, trachea, major vessels) b. abdominopelvic cavity

  26. Body Cavities Figure 1.9a

  27. Body Cavities Figure 1.9b

  28. Ventral Body Cavity Membranes Parietal serosa lines internal body walls Visceral serosa covers the internal organs • Serous fluid separates the serosae Major serous membranes of the body: pleura – around the lungs pericardium – around the heart peritoneum – around digestive organs

  29. Ventral Body Cavity Membranes Figure 1.10a

  30. Ventral Body Cavity Membranes Figure 1.10b

  31. Abdominopelvic Regions • Umbilical • Epigastric • Hypogastric • Right and left iliac or inguinal • Right and left lumbar • Right and left hypochondriac Figure 1.11a

  32. Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions Figure 1.11b

  33. Abdominopelvic Quadrants • Right upper • Left upper • Right lower • Left lower Figure 1.12

  34. Medical Imaging Techniques A. Classic X-ray : radiography (radiograph) 1. good for dense structures (bones and tumors)

  35. B. Computed Tomography (CT) [or Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scanning] 1. employs X-ray technology to create clearer image 2. tumors, aneurysms, kidney stones, gallstones, etc. 3. Xenon CT – traces blood flow in the brain

  36. C. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR) 1. employs CT X-ray technology to see organ action/motion 2. measures movement of the heart, lungs, vessels; can indicate abnormality/deformity in structure; tissue damage

  37. D. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) 1. takes X-ray picture before and after administration of contrast substance to the vessels 2. used to study vessels of the brain and heart to help prevent strokes and heart attacks

  38. E. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 1. uses radioisotopes such as Carbon-11, Nitrogen-13 2. effects of drugs, site of molecules, cancer cells 3. very good at studying glucose absorption by neurons in the brain during certain tasks

  39. F. Ultrasound (US) 1. uses high frequency sound waves 2. gall stones, pelvic organs, blood flow, fetal development

  40. G. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 1. uses magnetic properties of molecules, not X-rays 2. differentiates tissues based on water content 3. presence of cancer cells, chemical disease of brain, spinal cord disorders, blood flow problems, injury after stroke, measure effects of drugs on tissues 4. used chiefly on soft tissues such as brain & heart

  41. Organ Systems of the Body Integumentary system • Forms the external body covering • Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails • Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D

  42. Organ Systems of the Body Skeletal system • Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments • Protects and supports body organs • Provides the framework for muscles • Site of blood cell formation • Stores minerals

  43. Organ Systems of the Body Muscular system • Composed of muscles and tendons • Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression • Maintains posture • Produces heat

  44. Organ Systems of the Body Nervous system • Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves • Is the fast-acting control system of the body • Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands

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