1. Chapter 7: Ethnicity

2. Ethnicity • Ethnicity – group of people that share a common cultural background • Controversy in U.S. • How much discrimination still exists? • Should preference be given to correct past mistakes? • To what extent should distinct identity of ethnicity be encouraged or protected • Race – group that shares a biological ancestor - usually related to skin color or other physical characteristics • Ethnicity cannot be changed, but it can be mixed and diluted

3. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Distribution in the U.S. • Hispanic/Latino 14% • African American 12% • Asian American 4% • American Indian 1% • Clustering of Ethnicities • African Americans – in Southeast; over 25% of AL, GA, LA, MD, SC, & MS (33%) • Hispanics – in Southwest; 25% of CA, 33% of AZ, NM, TX; 30% of all Hispanics live in CA, 20% in TX, 15% in FL; 64% Mexican/Chicano, 10% Puerto Rican, 4% Cuban • Asian – in West; 12% of CA (1/2 of all Asians), 40% of HI; 23% Chinese, 19% Indian, 18% Filipino, 10% Vietnamese, 10% Korean, 7% Japanese • American Indian – in Southwest & Great Plains; also in Alaska (Eskimo-Aleut)

4. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Concentration in Cities • African Americans – 50% in cities • Detroit – 85% African American; MI is 7%; 50% of Michigan’s African Americans live in Detroit • Chicago – 1/3 African American; IL 1/12; 50% of Illinois’ African Americans live in Chicago • Hispanics • NYC – 25%; NY State – 1/16; 75% of NY’s Hispanics live in NYC • 50% of Los Angeles, El Paso, San Antonio • Neighborhood Scale • Ethnicities cluster in neighborhoods (African Americans, Asians, Hispanics, Little Italy, Chinatown, etc.); ethnic enclaves of one ethnicity surrounded by others; ethnoburbs in suburbs • Southern & Eastern European immigrants in Midwest (Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland) for steel & auto factories • 1910 – 75% of Detroit were immigrants; clustered in neighborhoods (Greektown, Poletown) • Los Angeles – AA in south central, Hispanics in east, Asians in south & west – 1992 riots (Rodney King); Asian stores looted by African Americans

5. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • African American Migration Patterns (3 major flows): • Forced migration from Africa • Slavery – 1st to American colonies in 1619 (Jamestown, VA) • 1700s – 400,000 brought by British • U.S. banned new slaves in 1808 – 250,000 brought illegally for next 50+ years • Very few slaves in Europe, but 10 million brought by Europeans to Western Hemisphere 1710-1810 (Brazil, Caribbean, etc.) – 5% to U.S. • Coastal Africans had better weapons and traded slaves with Europeans (captured interior peoples) • Spanish & Portuguese in 1500s; British, Dutch, French in 1600s • Most slaves from West Africa • Triangular Slave Trade – goods to Africa, gold & slaves to Caribbean, rum/molasses/tobacco/cotton to Europe • Hardships on journey, leaving families, forced labor • Slavery was big issue in U.S. from Constitution to Civil War (slave states vs. free states) • 13th, 14th, & 15th Amendments

6. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • African American Migration Patterns (3 major flows): • Great Migration North • Freed slaves often lived in South as sharecroppers • Decline in cotton demand and increase in machinery forced many off farms • Pulled towards industrial jobs in the North • Main routes: • Carolinas & South Atlantic to Baltimore, Philadelphia, NYC (U.S. 1 or I-95) • AL & E. TN to Detroit or Cleveland (U.S. 25 or 21 & I-75 or I-77) • MS & W. TN to St. Louis & Chicago (U.S. 61 or 66 & I-55) • TX to CA (U.S. 80 or 90 & I-10 or I-20) • 2 waves: 1910s-20s before and after WWI & 1940s-50s before and after WWII • Detroit African American pop. 5,741 – 500,000 (1910-1960)

7. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • African American Migration Patterns (3 major flows): • Expansion of the Ghetto • Clustering of African Americans in cities • Areas referred to as ghettos as many were unable to live in other areas (refusal to sell, poverty, etc.) • South Side Chicago – 500,000 African Americans in 3 square miles • Baltimore – 250,000 in 1 square mile (1950) NW of downtown • High density in inner-city vs. suburbs (100,000/sq. mile vs. 5,000/sq. mile • Moved from ghettos to adjacent neighborhoods in 1950s & 60s – expansion of ghettos along major roads

8. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Differentiating Ethnicity & Race • In U.S: • Asian race roughly = Asian ethnicity • Black race vs. African American (black may include Latin American, Caribbean, Asian, or Pacific) • Hispanic/Latino is NOT a race – must choose white, black, or other, but could mark Hispanic as their origin • Racism – belief in superiority/inferiority of a race or racial characteristics • Ethnocentrism – belief in superiority of one’s ethnicity • Ethnicity is more tied to location & culture • 2010 U.S. Census (14 races) • White 75%, Black 12%, American Indian, Asian Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Other Asian, Native Hawaiian, Guamanian/Chamorro, Samoan, Other Pacific Islander, Other race (2% checked more than 1 box) • Possible new “race” in 2020 – MENA (Middle Eastern & North African)

9. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Separate But Equal Doctrine • Once legal spatial separation of races • Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) – Supreme Court ruling that allowed/legalized segregation as long as facilities were “equal” • Jim Crow Laws – segregation in South (buses, schools, hotels, restaurants, shops, bathrooms, etc.) • Deeds with restrictions on selling homes to blacks (sometimes also to Catholics & Jews) • White Flight • Elimination of segregation in 1950s & 60s (Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS in 1954) • Minority facilities inferior and therefore unequal • Whites fled rather than integrate (Ex. Detroit 1.5 million whites left 1950-2000) • Whites often moved to suburbs – blacks moved in • Blockbusting – illegal real estate practice to convince whites to sell cheaply & sell at a higher price to blacks trying to escape ghettos • Kerner Commission (1968) – U.S. cities were 2 separate & unequal societies

10. Key Issue #1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? • Apartheid in South Africa • South Africa increased segregation while U.S. was ending it • 4 races: white (14%), colored (mix of white & black – 8%), Asian (3%), black (75%) • Race determined where you could live, go to school, shop, own land, travel within country • Blacks could not vote or run for office, could only hold certain jobs with lower wages • Dutch 1652 settled Cape Town area (known as Boers/farmers or Afrikaaner) • British captured Cape, Boers moved inland (Transvaal & Orange Free State) • Gold & diamonds discovered – British moved in & won Boer Wars in 1902 • British & Afrikaaners both refused to give power to blacks • 1970s & 80s – other countries imposed economic sanctions to oppose apartheid • 4 black homelands created (10 proposed) – would have been 13% of land for 44% of population (forced moving of blacks by gov’t) • End of Apartheid (1991) helped by African National Congress (ANC) • Nelson Mandela (jailed for 27 years) & Bishop Desmond Tutu • Mandela elected 1st black president of South Africa in 1994 • Blacks have political equality but remain much poorer (whites make 10x more than blacks on average)

11. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Nationality – legal attachment and personal allegiance to a country; similar to ethnicity in having a shared cultural ancestry, but different because of political attachment (Ex. Citizenship) • Rise of Nationalities • Europeans in U.S. (immigrants) often identify themselves by ethnicity (Czech, Poles, Germans, Italians, etc.) but identify with the American nationality • Quebec – nationality is Canadian, but ethnically French Canadian (Quebecois) • Nation States • Ethnic groups transformed into nations out of the desire for self-rule (self-determination) • Nation-state – a state/country whose territory corresponds roughly to an area occupied by a single ethnicity • Problems with nation states – not exact; always some mix of groups (minorities vs. majority)

12. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Nation States in Europe • France was ruled by a king until French Revolution; shortly after, Napoleon ruled France as a nation unified by language, culture, & religion • Most of Western Europe organized into states by 1900 • Boundary disputes • Territory claims in Africa and Asia (colonies) • Central & Eastern Europe made up of empires with multiple ethnic groups at that time • After WWI – Austro-Hungary & Ottoman empires broken up • Territorial boundaries drawn based on nation-state principal (usually using languages to determine) • Nazis (German National Socialists) wanted to unify all German-speaking parts of Europe (Germany, Austria, Sudetenland in Czech, territory lost to France in WWI) • Irredentism – movement to reclaim/reoccupy a lost homeland; based on real or imagined historic or ethnic connections • WWII did not begin until they invaded Poland (not German-speaking) • Examples of nation-states: Japan, Albania, Hungary, Egypt, Armenia, Estonia, Iceland, Lesotho, Malta, Poland, Portugal, etc.

13. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Examples of irredentism • Argentina claims Falkland Islands, South Georgia Island, and South Sandwich Island (all part of U.K.) • Bolivia claims territory lost to Chile in War of the Pacific 1879-1883 (left Bolivia landlocked without access to Pacific) • China claims Taiwan • India claims all of Jammu & Kashmir (divided among India, Pakistan, & China) • Indonesia claims East Timor • Israel/Palestine • North & South Korea (claim each other) • Some Mexican-Americans & the Reconquista movement want to claim for Mexico much of the west & southwest U.S. lost with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (end of Mexican-American War in 1848)

14. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Denmark: No Perfect Nation-States • Danish ethnicity fairly well occupied by Denmark (Danes) for 1,000 years; very few Danes outside Denmark • Not precise along southern border with Germany (Schleswig-Holstein) – some Danes in Germany & Germans in Denmark • Have controlled Faroe Islands for 600 years (speak Faroese) • Greenland (world’s largest island) controlled by Denmark – 50x size of Denmark, 13% Danish, 87% Inuit • 1979 – Denmark gave more autonomy to Greenland & place names changed from Danish to Inuit (Ex. Capital city of Godthab renamed to Nuuk) • Inuit name for Greenland is KalaallitNunaat • Nationalism – loyalty & devotion to one’s country/nationality (emphasis of one’s own country to others) • Gov’t use of media to promote nationalism • Symbols to promote nationalism – flags, songs, leaders • Hammer & sickle and red color for Communism (USSR) • Support in U.S. to make flag-burning illegal • National anthems – extol virtues of country, significant historical events, promote unity & respect (particularly with armed forces/veterans)

15. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Impacts of Nationalism • Often emphasize shared attitudes and characteristics to unify people (may exclude minorities, immigrants) • Jokes against other nationalities • Superiority complex • Foster strong dislike and potential conflict with other nations • Centripetal force – forces that unify people and enhance support for the state • Examples: sports, common language, common religion, single ethnic group, anthems, flags, symbols, common interests, etc. • Centrifugal force – forces that divide people and reduce support for the state • Examples: multiple languages, religious diversity, multiple ethnicities, etc.

16. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Multinational States • Multi-ethnic state – state with 2 or more ethnic groups (which contribute to one nationality) • Ex. Belgium (Flemings & Walloons), Switzerland, U.S., Canada, Mexico, etc.) • Multi-national state – state with 2 or more ethnic groups with a history of self-determination that agree to coexist peacefully • May have 1 group try to dominate the others (Russia in USSR) • Assimilation vs. culturally distinct • Ex. United Kingdom, Russia, former USSR, former Yugoslavia, former Austro-Hungarian empire • United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland • England - largest and most dominant in UK • Scotland – 1603 Scotland’s James VI became James I of England; 1707 formal union • Wales – conquered in 1282; formal union in 1536 • Northern Ireland – 1801 UK and Ireland union; ruled by British until 1920; voted to remain with UK • Little political independence, but view themselves as separate nationalities (sports/soccer teams)

17. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Former Soviet Union (USSR) – once the largest multinational state • Collapsed in early 1990s into 15 republics based on the 15 largest ethnicities • 3 Baltic states – Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania • 3 European states – Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine • 5 Central Asian states – Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan • 3 Caucasus states – Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia • Russia • Struggle with creating nation states – lack of peace in Caucasus Mts.; minorities in new countries; many ethnic groups with no country in Russia • New Baltic States (on the Baltic Sea) • Independent from 1918-1940 (between WWI & WWII); annexed by USSR • Estonia – 68% Estonian, 26% Russian; Lutheran Protestant, speaks a Uralic language related to Finnish • Latvia – 58% Latvian, 30% Russian, Lutheran & Catholic, (Indo-European) Balto-Slavic language • Lithuania – 83% Lithuanian, 6% Russian, Catholic, Balto-Slavic language

18. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • New European Nation States • Belarus – 81% Belarusian, isolated from Russian Slavs 1200-1700 AD • Moldova – 78% Moldovan, ethnically similar to Romanian, seized by Russia in 1940, many Ukrainians & Russians live there and oppose reunification with Romania • Transnistria (Trans-Dniestria) – unrecognized breakaway republic of Moldova near the Ukrainian border (32% Moldovan, 30% Russian, 29% Ukrainian) • Ukraine – 78% Ukrainian, isolated from Russian Slavs 1200-1700 • Crimean Peninsula (Black Sea) – 2/3 Russian; controlled by Russia until 1954; returned to Ukraine in 1954; key port for Russian navy; 166,000 Tatars migrated there from Central Asia; voted to join Russia in 2014; annexed by Russia; disputed by Ukraine & UN • 2013-14 Crisis in Ukraine – Pursued closer ties to European Union until Russia threatened economic penalties; country split over closer ties to Europe (west) & closer ties to Russia (east); sizable Russian minority in eastern and southern Ukraine

19. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • New Central Asian States • Turkmenistan – 85% Turkmen, Muslim, Altaic language, 4% Russian, many Turkmen living in Russia • Uzbekistan – 80% Uzbek, 6% Russian, Muslim, Altaic language, many Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan & Tajikistan • Kyrgyzstan – 65% Kyrgyz, 14% Uzbek, 13% Russian, Altaic language • Kazakhstan – 2x size of other 4 nations, 53% Kazakhs (Muslim, Altaic), 30% Russian (Eastern Orthodox, Indo-European/Balto-Slavic language); some tension between Russians and Kazakhs • Tajikistan – 79% Tajik, 15% Uzbek, 1% Russian, Muslim, language is Indic group of Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European, civil war among Tajiks (Communists vs. Muslims & Western-oriented intellectuals) • Border disputes over land & water in Fergana Valley (where Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, & Tajikistan meet)

20. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Russia – currently the largest multinational state • 39 official nationalities recognized in Russia • 2 clusters: • Near neighbors – Mongolia, former USSR republics, & Caucasus (Chechen, Ossetian, Buryats, Dagestani) • Center between Volga R. and Ural Mts. (Bashkirs, Tatars, Mordvins) • 20% of Russia is non-Russian • Independence movements on the rise • Ex. Chechnya (Chechens in Caucasus – Sunni Muslims, distinct culture); 50-year fight in 1800s for control of Chechnya; declared independence in 1991 (but ignored by Russia); Chechen rebels have fought war and sometimes used terrorist-style tactics • Russia feared independence to Chechens would encourage more movements; used military force; region important for development & oil • Russians in other states • Russian military & migrants in former USSR republics • Other countries fear re-assertion of Russian force • Russians feel discrimination (may not be allowed to vote or given full citizenship; may be passed over for jobs; don’t speak the language; difficult to migrate back to Russia with no jobs, money, land, or homes waiting for them there)

21. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • New Caucasus States • Caucasus region is size of Colorado between Black & Caspian Seas; very mountainous • Considered a shatter belt – zone of frequent territorial conflict • Azeris, Armenians, Georgians, Russians, Kurds, Chechens, Ossetians, Abkhazians, Ingush, Dagestani (collection of 50+ ethnic groups) • Few disputes during USSR – military force, gov’t promoted allegiance to Communism • Long-standing conflict re-emerged; not all ethnic groups given their own country • Azeris • Azerbaijani – roots to Turkish invaders from Central Asia 8th & 9th centuries; merged with existing Persians (Farsi) • 1828 – split between Russia & Iran • 7 million Azeris in Azerbaijan (91%), 16 million in Iran (24% of Iran); important in government & economy but language is restricted • Muslim • Fragmented state – western exclave of Nakhchivan separated by Armenia

22. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Armenians • Christian since 303 AD; under rule of Turkish Muslims for a long time • Many massacred in late 1800s & early 1900s by Turks (Armenian Genocide) • Divided between Russia & Turkey in 1921 • 98% Armenian (many live outside Armenia due to dispersal from genocide) • War with Azerbaijan since 1988 over boundary disputes – unrecognized breakaway republic of Nagorno-Karabakh (a region of Azerbaijan where the people are mostly Armenian) • Georgians • 84% Georgian, 7% Azeri, 6% Armenian, 2% Russian, 3% other • Diversity is a source of unrest • Ossetians – South Ossetia (northern part of Georgia) is a mostly unrecognized breakaway republic that desires reunification with North Ossetia (in Russia); war between Georgia & Russia when Russia annexed South Ossetia in 2008 • Abkhazians – Abkhazia is an unrecognized breakaway republic in NW Georgia; may be occupied by Russian military • Community for Democracy & Rights of Nations (Commonwealth of Unrecognized States) • Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Transnistria, & Nagorno-Karabakh • Recognize each other; limited recognition by outsiders

24. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Revival of Ethnic Identity • Karl Marx (Communism) believed working class would identify by class rather than a nationality/ethnicity • Ethnicity became more important than nationality in late 20th century Europe • Ethnicity & Communism • Nation-state principal minimized in favor of communist economic cooperation • Bulgaria – repressed Turkish & Islam; Turks migrated to Turkey • Centripetal forces to discourage expression of cultural uniqueness (often government-backed propaganda) • Writers & artists used socialist realism to emphasize Communist values • Use of Russian language in USSR & as a 2nd language in Eastern Europe • Discourage organized religion • Recognized ethnic groups in Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, & USSR

25. Key Issue #2: Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities • Rebirth of Nationalism in Europe • Repressed for 50-80 years; nationalism was on the rise by the early 1990s leading to fall of Communism • Most numerous ethnicities created nation states our of former Yugoslavia & USSR • Less numerous ethnicities left in multinational states or divided across borders • Many problems in Balkan Peninsula with former-Yugoslavia • Bulgaria – Turkish minority pushed for more rights (teach Turkish in schools) • USSR – broke up as minorities opposed Russian dominance • Yugoslavia – dominated by Serbs • Czechoslovakia – dominated by Czechs • Breakup of states peaceful as long as borders corresponded to clearly defined ethnic territory (Ex. Slovenia in former Yugoslavia is 93% Slovene; almost all Slovenes live in Slovenia) • Velvet Divorce – peaceful split of Czech Republic and Slovakia • Not a peaceful separation in other portions of Yugoslavia (particularly Serbia & Bosnia)

26. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Ethnic Competition to Dominate Nationality • Big problem in Sub-Saharan Africa (Horn of Africa & Central Africa) • Ethnic Competition in the Horn of Africa • Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, & Somalia (and neighboring Sudan & South Sudan) • Ethiopia & Eritrea • Eritrea – Italian colony 1890-1945 (along Red Sea) • Ethiopia – independent until captured by Italy in 1930s (ruled until 1945) • Eritrea was given to Ethiopia by UN after WWII – expected to give some autonomy but Ethiopia dissolved legislature & banned language • 1961-1991 – civil war, many fled to Sudan, emperor Haile Selassie • 1993 – Eritrea became a new country; 1998 – fight over location of border • Eritrea – 5 million; ½ Christian, ½ Muslim (9 major ethnic groups); sense of national loyalty & fight against Ethiopia are sources of unity • Ethiopia – still multi-ethnic; Amharans (Christians) in power until 1990s and in the center; Oromo (Muslim fundamentalists) are largest (40%) group and found in south; Tigres (Christians) in north

27. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Ethnic Competition in the Horn of Africa • Sudan • 40 million people – civil war since 1980s • Black Christians & animists in South • Arab Muslims in north – attempted to dominate the country • Segregation by gender, no perfume/jewelry, women fully covered, must be with a male relative, streetlights to avoid “sneaking around” • 2 million (5%) died in civil war, many migrated to south or north or to Ethiopia • 2005 agreement for autonomy in south (South Sudan became a country in July 2011) • Ethnic war in Darfur began as civil war died down (western Sudan) • Black Africans (farmers) rebelled • Muslim nomads (jangaweed) & Sudanese military crushed rebellion; 450,000 killed; 2.5 million in refugee camps in Sudan or surrounding countries such as Chad

28. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Ethnic Competition in the Horn of Africa • Somalia • Mostly Sunni and speak Somali • 9 million people in 6 clans (as well as sub-clans) • In north – Isaak (took control of north in 1991), Darod (ruled until 1991), Dir • In south – Digil, Hawiye (took control of south in 1991), Rahanwayn • Somalia (Italian southern colony) & Somaliland (British northern colony) combined in 1960 as independent country • Isaaks declared independent state of Somaliland – not recognized; have 20% of land and 40% of people • U.S. sent supplies and troops in 1992 after 300,000 died from famine & civil war – withdrew in 1994 as peace talks fell apart (Black Hawk Down) • Islamic militias took control in 2006 – more order than warring clans, but more supportive of terrorists • Somali pirates in Gulf of Aden and Red Sea and Indian Ocean

29. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Ethnic Competition in Lebanon • 4 million in 10,000 sq. km (4,000 sq. miles) • Once recreational & financial center of Middle East (capital of Beirut once called “Paris of the Middle East”) • 60% Muslim (1/2 Shia, 1/2 Sunni); 30% Christian (2/3 Maronite, 1/6 Greek Orthodox); 7% Druze (combine Islam & Christianity); 3% other • 1943 – independence; each religion was supposed to be represented in government (was a Christian majority, now a Muslim majority); Beirut divided in eastern (Christian) & western (Muslim) zones • 1975 civil war among religious groups; officially ended in 1990-91; conflict still persists though • U.S. & Israeli intervention failed in 1983 • Syria tried to control until 2005 when they were forced out; Israel intervened in 2006 • Hezbollah – terrorist group with ties to Shias; backed by Iran

30. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Dividing Ethnicities Among More Than One State • Hard to completely segregate ethnicities when creating new countries • Dividing South Asia • British colony from 1800s until 1947 • Divided into: • India (part of India nearly cut off by Bangladesh) - Hindu • West Pakistan (now Pakistan) – Muslim • East Pakistan (became independent Bangladesh in 1971) – Muslim • East & West Pakistan were one country but separated by India • Fighting between groups over South Asia for over 1000 years • Assassination of Gandhi in 1948 – Hindu who believed in nonviolence and reconciliation with Muslims • Forward capital – Pakistan moved its capital city to Islamabad to be have greater control near the conflict region of Kashmir

31. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Dividing Ethnicities Among More Than One State • Forced Migration in South Asia • Boundaries between religions are not exact • About 17 million on wrong side in 1947 • 6 million Muslims from India to West Pakistan • 1 million Muslims from India to East Pakistan • 6 million Hindus from West Pakistan to India • 3.5 million Hindus from East Pakistan to India • Violence as extremists from both sides attacked refugees • Sikhs migrated from West Pakistan to India (division of Punjab) • Ethnic Disputes • Boundary dispute in Kashmir (mountainous northern region)between India & Pakistan • “Line of Control” for Kashmir established in 1972 • Muslim majority on both sides – use guerilla warfare to unite with Pakistan or create own country of Kashmir • 25 million Sikhs not given own country – preferred India to Pakistan; extremists have fought for independence in Punjab

32. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Dividing Sri Lanka Among Ethnicities • Once the British colony of Ceylon until 1948 • Island off SE coast of India • 20 million people – Sinhalese vs. Tamils • Sinhalese – 74%, southern Sri Lanka, Buddhist, speak language in Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European, migrated from India in 5th century BC • Tamils – 18%, northern Sri Lanka, Hindu, speak a Dravidian language, migrated from India in 3rd century BC • Fought for over 2,000 years but not during British rule • Civil war began in 1983 – 60,000 or more have died • Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam – rebel Tamil group; responsible for assassinating president of Sri Lanka in 1993; defeated in 2009 • Sinhalese dominate country; Tamils feel discriminated against • Cease-fire since 2002 but violence still common • Exporter of tea, coffee, cinnamon, and coconuts

33. Key Issue #3: Why Do Ethnicities Clash? • Kurds – a stateless nation (an ethnic group without a self-governing country of its own but has desire for self rule) • Sunni Muslim, Indo-Iranian language • Former country of Kurdistan taken by Turkey • 30 million Kurds • 14 mil in Turkey, 6 mil in Iran, 5 mil in Iraq, & 2 mil in Syria • Have tried to rebel in Turkey, Iran, & Iraq unsuccessfully • Saddam Hussein tested chemical weapons against Kurdish rebels • Kurds persecuted by ISIS/ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq & Greater Syria) – refugees trying to flee to Turkey • Other examples of stateless nations: • Sindhis, Sikhs, Kashmiri in Pakistan/India; Tamils in Sri Lanka • Balochs in Pakistan/Afghanistan/Iran • Chechens (Ichkeria), Circassians, Tatars in Russia • Uyghurs (East Turkestan), Tibetans in China • Quebecois in Canada • Acehnese in Indonesia • Shan, Hmong, and Rohingya in SE Asia • Assyrians in Turkey/Iran/Iraq/Syria • Occitans, Basques in France/Spain

34. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic cleansing (ethnic purification) – forced removal of an ethnic group by another from a territory; the goal is not to defeat or subjugate an enemy but to get rid of them • Genocide – mass destruction of an ethnic group (systematic, deliberate, planned) • Genocide and ethnic cleansing are not the same – ethnic cleansing may turn into genocide • WWII & Holocaust – Jews murdered during, post-WWII boundary changes led to more ethnic conflict • Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia • Balkan Peninsula is ethnically diverse • Creation of Multi-Ethnic Yugoslavia • North was in Austro-Hungarian Empire • South was in Ottoman empire – lost territory to Austro-Hungary • WWI – started when Serb nationalist assassinated Archduke Ferdinand of Austro-Hungary • After WWI, Yugoslavia created to unite Slavs with similar languages

35. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia • Ethnic Diversity in Former Yugoslavia • Ruled by Communist dictator Tito 1953-1980 • 7 neighbors: Austria, Greece, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania (1st 3 democratic, last 4 communist) • 6 republics: Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro (each given limited autonomy) • 5 nationalities: Croats, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs, Slovenes (Bosnia – mix of Serbs, Croats, & Bosnian Muslims) • 4 languages: Croatian, Macedonian, Serbian, Slovene • 3 religions: Catholic (Croats & Slovenes in north), Orthodox (Serbs & Macedonians in east), Islam (Bosnians & Montenegrins in south) • 2 alphabets: Roman (Croatian & Slovene) and Cyrillic (Serbian & Macedonian) • 1 dinar: unit of currency (common economic interests) • Government was stable; young people identified as Yugoslavian

36. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia • Destruction of Multi-ethnic Yugoslavia • Rivalries resurfaced after Tito’s death in 1980s • Capital & largest city: Belgrade (in Serbia) • 1990s – separated into 5 republics; 2006 – Montenegro separated from Serbia • Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia • Ethnically mixed – 48% Bosnian Muslim or Bosniak(in ¼ of country), 37% Serb (in ½ of country), & 14% Croat (in ¼ of country) • Serbs & Croats fought to remain/reunite with Serbia or Croatia • Ethnic cleansing & genocide of Muslims; Serbs separated from Serbia by Muslim territory (Muslims in an ethnic enclave) • Sarajevo – capital & largest city of Bosnia • UN peacekeepers (1992-1995), NATO military involvement 1995-96 • Slobodan Milosevic former (Serbian president) charged for war crimes in 1998 (died in prison without a verdict in 2006)

37. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia • Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo • Serbia is still multi-ethnic • Kosovo – southern portion of Serbia; 90% Albanian (Kosovars) • Serbia had historical control until 1389 (lost to Ottomans) • Very limited autonomy for Kosovo under Tito • Ethnic cleansing by Serbs – forced 750,000 of 2 million Albanians out (mostly to refugee camps in Albania) • NATO bombing campaign & 50,000 troops; UN administration in Kosovo (1999) • Declared independence in 2008 – recognized by 108 UN member states • Balkanization • Balkanized – describes an area that cannot be successfully organized into 1 or more stable states due to complex ethnic mix • Balkanization – the process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among ethnic groups • Led to WWI, more problems now after fall of communism

38. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Central Africa • Hutus (original settlers & farmers of Rwanda & Burundi) vs. Tutsis (nomadic cattle herders from Kenya 400 years ago) • Tutsis (15% of pop.) took control of kingdom and ruled Hutus • German control 1899-WWI; Belgium from WWI – 1962 • Europeans reinforced differences (preference given to Tutsis) • 1994 – presidents of Rwanda & Burundi died in plane crash (cause unknown but Tutsis blamed by Hutus) during peace talks between Hutu gov’t & Tutsi rebels • Hutu extremists led genocide against Tutsis (approx. 500,000 killed) – many fled as refugees • Tutsi rebels joined by Ugandan Tutsis and retaliated against Hutus and seized control of Rwandan gov’t • 3 mil of the 7 mil Hutus fled Rwanda into Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Uganda, Tanzania, & Burundi • Conflict spread into neighboring countries

39. Key Issue #4: What Is Ethnic Cleansing? • Ethnic Cleansing in Central Africa • Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo or DRC) civil war • Tutsis overthrew President Mobutu SeseSeko in 1997; replaced by President Kabila (Tutsis rebelled and took control of eastern Zaire) • Mobutu had become very wealthy while country remained poor (1965-1997) • Formerly the Belgian Congo (until 1960) – source of copper, diamonds, & gold • Mobutu had tried to expel the Tutsis • Kabila assassinated in 2001; his son took over and negotiated with the rebels, but violence continues • Estimates of 1 mil – 5.4 mil have died (war, rape, famine, disease) • Joseph Kony moved his LRA (Lord’s Resistance Army) forces from Uganda to DRC in 2005 (now supposedly in Central African Republic) • Africa’s boundary problems • European colonial powers drew boundaries with little or no concern for the numerous ethnic groups (Conference of Berlin in 1884) • Independent countries mostly follow the territorial boundaries of former colonies