Child Behavior & Guidance Part 5: Research & Resources

1. Child Behavior & Guidance Part 5: Research & Resources Oklahoma Cooperative Extension ServiceCore In-Service December 1, 20099:30-11:00 a.m. Debbie Richardson, Ph.D. Parenting Assistant Extension Specialist Human Development & Family Science Oklahoma State University

2. Introduction • Welcome • Overview of In-service • Resource Materials

3. In-Service Objectives Extension Educators will be able to: • identify and critique current research, issues, and educational/program resources related to child discipline and punishment tactics • identify implications and applications for parents and other child caregivers • identify Oklahoma laws and definitions for reporting child abuse

4. Main Findings – Nat’l Surveys • Spanking practiced in about 1/2 of U.S. households, some report 70-94% – has declined in recent decades • Younger children < 7 years are most likely to be physically punished • Use of discipline and punishment starts early (Vittrup et al., 2006; Wissow, 2002)

5. In one survey of American parents……. • 43% report spanking or hitting their child within the last 12 months • 2% report having kicked, bit, or punched their child • 37% report insulting or swearing at their child • 45% report not paying attention to the emotional needs of their children • 1/3 fewer parents report using physical punishment and repeated yelling and swearing than did so in 1988 (Prevent Child Abuse America, 2001)

6. Young Children Forms of Discipline Used • 1st year - diversion, reasoning, ignoring, & negotiating highly used; 11-14% spanked; 21% slapped baby’s hand, 16-36% yelled in anger • By 18 mo. - 76% yelled and 29% spanked • By 3 years - 40% yelled and 40-59% spanked • 12-24 mo.- use of various discipline methods considerably increases; continues to 48 mo. • Over first 4 years - Use of discipline techniques stays fairly stable - parents choose discipline type early on and sustain • 82% of mothers reported trying other discipline methods before spanking (Regalado et al., 2004; Vittrup et al., 2006; Wissow, 2002 )

7. Parental Factors Associated with Spanking Infants and Toddlers • Punishment during own upbringing • Knowledge of child development • Religious beliefs • Income, socioeconomic level • Parental age • Mixed or inconsistent findings: education level, race/ethnicity, marital status (Ateah, 2003; Regalado et al., 2004; Walsh, 2002; Wissow, 2002)

8. Highly Associated Parental Factors • Frustration and aggravation: More than 1 episode with child daily = 8-fold increase in odds of spanking • Depressive symptoms • Childrearing attitudes and beliefs (Ateah, 2003; Regalado et al., 2004; Vittrup et al., 2006; Wissow, 2002)

9. Some Overall Conclusions • Parents who spank are heterogeneous, diverse backgrounds • Use of discipline occurs in a variety of contexts • It appears that physical punishment is used even though parents may have little belief in effectiveness (Vittrup et al., 2006; Wissow, 2002)

10. The Corporal Punishment -Spanking Debate • Intertwined with traditions, moral and religious beliefs, cultural views, social norms, laws and policies • Mixed, unclear, and oversimplified messages from popular media, research, family members • Variation in advice regarding physical punishment offered by professionals, authors, and others notable for childrearing information (Kazdin & Benjet, 2003; Rankin, 2005; Vittrup et al., 2006)

11. Research Findings on Spanking Depends on the definition • Hitting child with open hand on buttocks or extremities with intent to discipline without leaving a bruise or causing physical harm • Severe corporal punishment • Abusive – harsh and excessive, use of objects, directed to other parts of body, causes or has potential to cause harm • Frequency (Kazdin & Benjet, 2003)

12. Evidence about Spanking • Spanking that is frequent and harsh is often associated with undesirable mental and physical health outcomes • Effects of very mild, occasional spanking are not well studied or sufficiently clear • Mild spanking can escalate and does mix in with more severe hitting • Limited effectiveness as a long-term strategy (AAP, 1998; Kazdin& Benjet, 2003)

13. Recent Studies • 2 articles in Sept/Oct 2009 Child Development • Toddlers in low-income families • Spanking one-year olds leads to more aggressive behavior and reduced cognitive development in following 2 years • Physical discipline through childhood and behavior problems in teens – ages 5 to 16 • Use of physical discipline tends to decline over time • When it continues, teens more likely to have behavior problems

14. Recommendations • Parents and teachers may not be able to consistently adhere to a specific “mild & occasional” spanking • Caution against use of spanking due to lack of clarity between mild spanking that may be safe to use and severe corporal punishment known as dangerous • Emphasize use of alternative strategies • Spanking should not be used < 18 mo. (AAP, 1998; Kazdin& Benjet, 2003)

15. Dr. Bob Larzelere Associate Professor Human Development & Family Science Research areas: • Parental Discipline • Research methodology & statistics

16. Child Abuse Definitions Oklahoma statute Tit. 10, § 7102, 7106(A)(3) • Harm or threatened harm to a child's health or safety includes, but is not limited to non-accidental physical abuse, mental injury, sexual abuse or exploitation, or neglect • A child is any person under the age of 18 • If…the incident reported was the result of the reasonable exercise of parental discipline involving the use of ordinary force, including, but not limited to, spanking, switching, or paddling, the investigation or assessment will proceed no further.

17. Child Abuse Definitions Physical Abuse is physical injury (ranging from minor bruises to severe fractures, or death) as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning, or otherwise harming a child. Such injury is considered abuse regardless of whether the caretaker intended to hurt the child. Emotional Abuseis any pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or sense of self-worth. This may include constant criticism, threats, or rejection, as well as withholding love, support, or guidance.

18. Mandatory Reporting “Every physician or surgeon, registered nurse, teacher and other person, who has reason to believe that a child under 18 is a victim of abuse or neglect shall report the suspicion of abuse promptly to the county Oklahoma Department of Human Services office wherein the suspected abuse or neglect occurred.” 1-800-522-3511 Statewide Child Abuse Hotline

19. Parent Education - Start Early • Children under age one are most vulnerable to serious injury from physical discipline • Parent frustration is strongest independent predictor of spanking infants • Education and counseling about disciplinary practices and alternatives to physical methods such as spanking need to be done as early as possible, preferably 1st year • Important to target parents of young children with frustration and depressive symptoms (Regalado et al., 2004; Vittrup et al., 2006; Walsh, 2002; Wissow, 2002)

20. Implications for Parent Education • Good evidence for educating parents about discipline practices and alternatives to corporal punishment • Offering advice expecting changes in established practices is less effective • Small group format allowing parents to discuss and compare experiences may be one of most effective formats for program delivery (Ateah, 2003; Vittrup et al., 2006; Walsh, 2002)

21. Educating Parents about Discipline • Offer strategies likely to lead to desirable outcomes – positive guidance, warm interactions • Key elements - positive and supportive parent-child relationships, proactive teaching and strengthening of desired behaviors, and reactive practices and punishment for decreasing or eliminating undesired behaviors • Recognize real-life situations in which parents use discipline • Consider ways in which advice is likely to be used in order to prevent potential negative outcomes (AAP, 1998; Rankin, 2005)

22. Working with Parents • Those providing guidance or counseling to parents regarding discipline practices and corporal punishment need to understand the underlying factors associated with their use • Attitudes and beliefs toward discipline and physical punishment as well as assessing parental emotions must be addressed in order to affect their use • Assisting parents with discipline decisions needs to be done in the context of children’s development and behavior (Regalado et al., 2004; Vittrup et al., 2006)

23. Partnering with Families • Do’s & Don’ts • Communication • Cultural issues • Helping/supporting

24. Pulling it all together Applying the information Other resources

25. Practical Applications for Extension • FCS and 4-H Programs • Parenting Education • Special Programs – Parent Child Connections & CNEP • Child Care Providers and Educators • Child and Youth Development • Public Education • Referrals

26. Resources • Critically analyze • Does it address the issues and needs of the child, parents, other caregivers? • Is it supported by respected, current research?

27. Resources • Materials and links provided with in-service • FCS Program Planning Guide (PPG) • Curricula • Bibliography/resource list will be sent at a later date

28. Wrap-Up • Questions • Discussion • In-service evaluation This concludes the in-service series

29. References Ateah, C. A. (2003). Disciplinary practices with children: parental sources of information, attitudes, and educational needs. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 26, 89-101. Rankin, J. L. (2005). Parenting experts: their advice, the research, and getting it right. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Regalado, M., Sareen, H., Inkelas, M., Wissow, L. S., & Halfon, N. (2004). Parents’ discipline of young children: results from the national survey of early childhood health. Pediatrics, 113, 1952-1958. Vittrup, B., Holden, G. W., & Buck, J. (2006). Attitudes predict the use of physical punishment: a prospective study of the emergence of disciplinary practices. Pediatrics, 117, 2055-2064. Walsh, W. (2002). Spankers and nonspankers: where they get information on spanking. Family Relations, 51, 81-88. Wissow, L.S. (2002). Child discipline in the first three years of life. In N. Halfon, K. T. McLearn, & M. A. Schuster (Eds.). Child rearing in America: the conditions of parents with young children (pp. 146-177). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Fact sheets, article abstracts, and other resource materials provided separately Various textbooks and other reference materials