Social Development
Sources: • Family • Work/school/activities • Need for Affiliation: social convoy • Establish relationships • Mate selection • Friendship
Benefits of affiliation • Information, assistance, identify mates • Companionship, confidant • Development, maintenance of sense of self, well-being (physical, psychological) • Costs • Energy, emotional risk • Carstensen (1992) • Socio-Emotional Selectivity
Social Convoy • Antonucci, 1990 • Network of close relationships • Accompany individual throughout life • Size • @ 2-5 close relationships • Little change during adulthood • change: death, illness, move • Quality more important than quantity
Young, middle adulthood • More likely to see size, emotional identity of convoys as inadequate compared to older adulthood • Women • Larger convoys than men • Maintain friendships longer • More meaningful cross-gender friendships
Perspectives on Psychosocial Development • Late adulthood
Disengagement Theory • late adulthood: mutual withdrawal of individual and society • shrinkage of life space • social circle narrows • Increased individuality • Anticipate, accept narrowing of social circle; give up roles • Result of intrinsic changes in aging person
Interaction style becomes passive • Less likely to be chosen for new roles: • further disengagement • Predicts socially disengaged person has high satisfaction • But: No evidence of disengagement • Justifies ageist stereotypes
Activity Theory • Disengagement in one area leads to engagement in other areas • Older people have same psychological/social needs as others • Older adults need to stay active and resist shrinkage of social world • Maintain high level of activity to experience satisfaction
Predicts: • active older people have high satisfaction • But: • Satisfaction measured by how close real and desired levels of activity are • high level of activity not necessary for satisfaction • Reverse Ageism? • Might force roles, activities on those who prefer to withdraw
Continuity Theory • People cope with late adulthood much like the way they coped with earlier periods of life • Consistency of personality traits • Carstensen: Socioemotional Selectivity Theory • Maximize social gain • Minimize social risks
Social Relations: Affiliation • Satisfaction correlated with quality of contact with friends, family, others throughout lifespan (Social Convoy) • Size: generally similar throughout lifespan • Composition: • proximity to family • marital status • gender (quantity, intimacy)
Long-Standing Friendships • Correlate with feelings of well-being, self-esteem • May account for choices in late adulthood: maintain established contacts • friends, religious affiliations, social/ethnic clubs
Friendship • Qualities • Role present throughout lifespan (different qualities) • Voluntary, less social regulation than other relationships • Based on similarity (age, sex, background) • Oriented towards enjoyment, personal satisfaction • Importance of trust
Functions • Contribute to self-esteem • Coping, support • Acceptance • Life satisfaction • “social capital”
Gender differences? • Males • Less emotional expressiveness • Less self-disclosing • Instrumental (activity oriented) • More tolerant of conflict • Females • Closer, deeper, more intimate • Communality, helping
Video Activity 3
Video Activity 3 • Stereotypes • Research findings – consensus on quality of female vs. male friendships
Dating and Mate Selection • North America: Courtship, dating • After WW1 • Emergence of dating resulted from • Urbanization • Rise of secondary education • Decreased parental supervision • Female equity movement of 1920s
Changes in Dating Since 1950s • Increase in adolescent dating • Decrease in tendency for a pattern of progression of intimacy • From initial meeting to marriage • Qualities most valued in a date? • Men: Looks, personality, sex appeal • Women: Looks, personality, thoughtfulness
Choosing a Mate • What do you look for in a mate? • Filter theory • Propinquity • Attractiveness • Social background • Consensus (common views, values) • Complimentarity • Readiness for marriage • Mechanical – subjectivity, affection?
Adams (1979) • Focus on process – establish couple bond • Not on eliminating sources of future friction • Propinquity • Early attraction • Perpetuation of attraction • Commitment and intimacy • Deeper attraction • Decision: “right for me” • Marriage • Assumes marriage is ultimate goal: process may not end in marriage
Sexuality and Agingor: “Is there sex after 40?” • Myth: Older people are not sexually active • Reality: Yes they are! • Greeley (1992): “Sex after 60” • Surveyed 5,700 people • Results: • All older people are sexual (identity) • Not all sexually active, but many older people enjoy an active sex life
Sex after 60 • No loss of competence, desire, interest • % active declines with age • 37% married couples over 60 report being sexually active once a week or more • Often more satisfying than in early adulthood • Satisfaction based on need for intimacy • Experience • Time to develop relationship
Factors contributing to decline • Health • Side effects of medications (blood pressure control, antihistamines, depression) • Restriction of blood flow: • Artherosclerosis (hardening of arteries) • Diabetes (fatty deposits in blood vessels) • Arthritis • Pain, stiffness of joints • Side effects of cancer • Anemia, loss of appetite, weakness
Prolonged abstinence • Can cause impotence • Lifestyle choicese • Poor diet (fitness), smoking, alcohol, obesity, AIDS/STDs
Factors not necessarily contributing: • Coffee drinking (more likely to be sexually active) • Heart attack (recovered) • Prostate surgery (50% impotence if cancer) • Hysterectomy
Sexual Physiology Changes with Age • Women • Menopause • does not mark end of sexuality • Variable reactions: Bernice Neugarten • Older women more likely than younger to see positive changes occurring following menopause • “Best thing about menopause?” • Not worrying about pregnancy • Not having to bother with menstruation
“Worst thing about menopause?” • Not knowing what to expect • Discomfort • Indication of advancing age • Sexual responsiveness • Vaginal changes, possibly diminished orgasm • Slowed, quicker return to prearousal state
Men • Male climacteric: loss of reproductive capacity • Later than women • Require more time, stimulation to achieve erection • Refractory period longer • Ejaculatory control increases • Orgasm less intense
Reasons Males and Females Were No Longer Sexually Active(Masters & Johnson, 1966)
Societal Attitudes • Infantilize elderly • Tendency to “castrate” dependent individuals • Failure to recognize sexuality of elderly • Institutional lack of sensitivity, privacy
Conclusions • Older individuals should be encouraged to continue physical intimacy • Barriers to sexual expression by the elderly should be reduced • Older adults should have access to appropriate counseling for sexual difficulties
Sexuality and Institutionalized Elderly: Lichtenberg & Strzepek (1990) Guidelines to determine competencies in engaging in intimate relationships • Awareness of relationship • Know who is initiating contact, knowledge of comfort level in intimacy • Ability to avoid exploitation • Behaviour consistent with own values, capacity to refuse contact • Awareness of potential risks • Time limitations, end of relation
