1. Political Revolutions America France Caribbean Spanish America 1750-1850

2. Revolutions and the modern world • The two major European political revolutions, the American (1775-1783) and the French (1789-1815), inspired revolutions in many parts of the globe • Though fuelled by grand ideas of liberty and equality, these proved to be elusive ideas to put into practice (think about slavery in America and the “Terror” in France—or poverty in the modern world, for that matter))

3. Ideologies • By the beginning of the 19th century, liberalism and nationalism become powerful ideologies among European states • The basic ideas behind these ideologies had been long-discussed in the 17th and 18th centuries and these revolutions start to put those ideas into practice

4. To many who fought during these revolutions, “liberty” was the main goal – mirrored in slogans from a French pamphlet (left) and the words of the revolutionary general John Stark

5. Constitutionalism The American Declaration of Independence The American Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens

6. American Revolution • The Revolution was started by colonists who felt that their wealth was being unfairly taxed by the English king – why should they contribute to the upkeep of a government in which they had no say • But to King George III, the colonists were his subjects (that was the situation when the colonies were founded) and thus owed taxes for the upkeep of the crown

7. In his book Common Sense, Thomas Paine, a recent immigrant to the colonies advocated that it was “common sense” for the colonists to govern themselves, an idea that quickly developed a strong following Mixing a learned understanding of the British Constitution and a populist tone, Paine reflected the enlightenment ideal of applying natural law to the running of government

8. Government • The government set up by the Constitution of 1776 was a compromise between those who wanted a loose association and those who wanted a strong, centralized state • Another major tension beneath the surface was a major split on the question of slavery – and between the urban north and rural south

9. French Revolution • The French Revolution was also a tax revolt of sorts, and like Paine, revolutionaries believed that it was “common sense” for the people to govern themselves • However, this led to several experiments with forms of government (constitutional monarchy, republicanism, dictatorship) – sometimes with drastic effects

10. Phases of the French Revolution Phase I – July 1789-August 1792 Constitutional liberalism (peaceful) Phase II – August 1792-September 1793 Radical Republicanism (violent) Phase III – September 1793-July 1794 The Terror (fear) Phase IV – July 1794-1799 The Directory (War with conservative Europe) Phase V – 1799-1815 The Napoleonic Era (War and Empire)

11. Though Napoleon’s personal rule flew in the face of the liberal ideals of the revolution, he nonetheless reformed civic law and public education • His most important achievement, however, may have been to unite the French nation and put monarchy up to a new standard – personal merit

12. Revolution in Haiti (1791-1804) • News of events in France quickly spread to the colonies – where white colonists hoped for their independence and African slaves hoped for emancipation; neither would come about without a struggle • Slaves led a revolt in Haiti in 1791and in 1793 the French National Assembly abolished slavery – leaving Haiti to form its own republic

13. Toussaint Louverture led a force against Napoleon’s army that invaded in 1802 to bring the island back under French control Toussaint himself was tricked into being brought back to France where he was jailed and ultimately died Here he is idealized as the bringer of a modern constitution to Haiti. A great supporter of Enlightenment thought, Toussaint’s constitution reflected the same sort of ideals as those of France and the United States

14. Brazil – Constitutional Monarchy • The Portuguese royal family saw the writing on the wall – and granted Brazil independence with a constitutional monarchy in 1822 • The royal family and the elite landowners worked closely together to crush all signs of slave uprisings in order to keep their privileged position • Brazil was one of the biggest producers of coffee in the world

15. Mexican War of Ind. (1810-1821) • Opposition to Spanish overlords (which in 1810 was Napoleon’s brother) came from a wide coalition of Mexican society – Europeans, mestizos, and mulattos • Uprisings raged for over a decade until Spain could not hold on any longer • In 1821, Mexico was granted its independence

16. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was captured by the Spanish in 1811 and executed by a firing squad He became a martyr to the cause – a liberator-hero – and to this day is a symbol of Mexican independence

17. Wars of liberation in the Americas • By the end of the eighteenth century Spanish colonial rule in the Americas was taxing an already impoverished monarchy • Resistance was influenced by the spirit of the French Revolution and, closer to home, the Haitian Revolution 1791-1803 • By 1826, the whole of South America was independent from outside rule

18. Simon Bolivar (1793-1830) • Following the example of Napoleon Bonaparte, Bolivar mixed passion for liberty and patriotism with military genius • A romantic figure who led armies to liberate several counties • He was elected president of Venezuela, Columbia, and Peru at different times

19. The legacy of liberation • By mid-century there had grown up a class of military leaders known as caudillos who controlled large areas with the tacit consent of the national government – the military could make or break the government • All parties tended to agree on liberty but had very different visions of what liberty meant in a civil society – precarious balance between liberals and conservatives and a widening gap between rich and poor

20. Conclusion • The Revolutionary ideals that spread across the Atlantic world between 1780 and 1820 made “the People” the prime focus of politics • This emphasis on “the People” also promoted ideals of nationalism and spawned a debate about what makes up a nation