AP English Language

1. AP English Language Grammar Intensive Parts of Speech Review

2. 1. Nouns • Person, place, thing or idea • Can be: • Proper/common • Concrete/abstract • collective

3. 1. Functions of nouns • Subject • The babycried. • Dogs and catsmake excellent pets. • Predicate Nominative –with a linking verb • My grandfather is a farmer. • Direct Object • The children ate all the cookies.

4. 1. Functions of Nouns • Object complements – directly modifying the direct object. • My aunt calls my uncle sweetheart. • America recently elected Barack Obama president. • Indirect Objects • The salesman sold the companynew computers. • Object of Preposition • Mike bought flowers for Andrea.

5. 1. Functions of Nouns • Appositives • The musician Stevie Nicks is a singer in Fleetwood Mac. • The teacher, my uncle, assigns a lot of homework.

6. 1. Functions of Nouns • Adjectives – noun phrase modifiers • The child actor won an award. • Adjectives - Possessive modifiers • The librarians' report was informative. • Adverbs • We decided to go home. • Today the children woke up early.

7. 2. Pronouns • Use in place of one or more nouns • Can serve all of the same functions as nouns, including ADJECTIVES!! • The word that the pronoun replaces or refers to is called an antecedent • There are seven types of pronouns!

8. 2. Pronoun Types • Personal and Personal Possessive I, me, my, mine He, him, his She, her, hers We, us, our, ours They, them, their, theirs You, your, yours it, its Note: Possessive Pronouns function as ADJECTIVES!

9. 2. Pronoun Types • Reflexive and Intensive • Can be used to REFLECT on a noun or • Can be used to INTENSIFY for emphasis myself ourselves yourself yourselves himself herself itself themselves Ex. Miranda explained herself. Ex. Miranda herself made the explanation.

10. 2. Pronoun Types • Relative Pronouns • Used to introduce subordinate clauses that who whose which whom Ex. The college [that I chose] was in Texas. Ex. Do you know the woman [whose writing was mentioned?]

11. 2. Pronoun Types • Interrogative Pronouns • Used in questions who which what whom whose Ex. Who borrowed my pen? Ex. Which do you prefer?

12. 2. Pronoun Types • Who vs. Whom • Who is always referring to a subject of a verb in a clause • Whom is always referring to an object of a verb in a clause

13. 2. Pronoun Types • Examples of correct “who” usage: • Who went to the circus? • We all know who won the game for the team. • Corie knows who made the cake. • Whoever said that you couldn't dance?

14. 2. Pronoun Types • Examples of correct “whom” usage • For whom did you vote? • With whom do you sail? • Whom should I ask about the discount? • You may go with whomever you choose.

15. 2. Pronoun Types • Who vs. Whom – The he/him test • Try restating your clause as statement or answer. If you can substitute “he,” use who. If you substitute “him,” use whom. • Who went to the circus? He went to the circus • Corie knows who made the cake. He made the cake. • For whom did you vote? I voted for him. • You may go with whomever you choose. I choose him.

16. 2. Pronoun Types • Demonstrative Pronouns • Used to point out persons or things This that these those Ex. That is an excellent answer. Ex. This is the correct answer.

17. 2. Pronoun Types • Indefinite Pronouns • Pronouns that do not usually refer to a specific antecedent all everybody no one another everyone one any few other anybody many several anyone most some both neither somebody each nobody someone either none such

18. 3. Adjectives • A word used to modify a noun or pronoun • Answers the questions: • Which one? • What kind? • How many? • How much?

19. 3. Adjective Placement • Before the nouns they modify • The green apples smelled good. • I placed the arduous task in the hands of a capable student. • Predicate Adjective – with a linking verb • Deborah is practical. • His stew tasted delicious. • After the nouns they modify • The hikers, tired and hungry, straglled into camp

20. 4. Verbs • A word that expresses action or state of being • Three types • Action – transitive or intransitive • Linking – describing state or condition • Helping – used with a main verb to form a verb phrase

21. 4. Verbs • Action Transitive – takes a direct object • The rain pelted the windows. • My cousin boughta car. • Action Intransitive – no object necessary • The rain fell. • My cousin drove. • Some are one, some are both • The chorus sang patriotic songs. (trans) • The chorus sang. (intrans)

22. 4. Verbs • Linking Verbs – describe state of being • Link the subject to a noun, pronoun or adjective that describes or identifies the subject • Links a subject to a subject complement is were appear look am be become remain are being feel seem was been grow sound stay taste

23. 4. Verbs • Linking verb examples • This is she • She looks serious • My uncle was a doctor. • Some words can be linking OR action, based on usage • The singer appeared nervous (linking) • The singer appeared on television (action)

24. 4. Verbs • Helping verbs – combine with other verbs to form verb phrases Am has can/may have Are had could/would/should have Is can could/would/should be Was may will/shall/have been Were will/shall be might have Do will/shall have might have been Did has/had been must Have can/may be must have must have been

25. 4. Verbs • Examples of Helping Verbs – they can be separated and still function as one • Did you see Lorraine Hansberry’s play? • We have not seen it yet.

26. 5. Adverbs • A word used to modify a verb, adjective or other adverb • Answers the questions • Where? • When? • In what way? • To what extent?

27. 5. Adverbs • Modify a verb • She reads quickly. (in what way) • She reads early and late. (when) • She reads everywhere. (where) • She reads thoroughly. (to what extent) • She reads frequently. (how often)

28. 5. Adverbs • Modify an adjective • She is an awfully intense competitor • Modify another adverb • She skated very well. • Used chiefly for emphasis really actually truly indeed • She can actually fly over the ice • She is a really good skater.

29. 5. Adverbs • Nouns as adverbs • My parents left yesterday. • They will return Saturday.

30. 6. Preposition • A word used to show the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word in a sentence • Used as part of a prepositional phrase About beside of up Above besides off upon Across between on with After beyond over within Against by past without Along concerning since Amid down through Among during throughout Around except to At for toward Before from under Behind in underneath Below into until Beneath like unto

31. 6. Preposition • Examples of prepositions/phrases • The first speaker [on the program] is my mother. • Her cousin will teach [in San Diego] next year. • The two [of us] edited the article [for the magazine].

32. 7. Conjunctions • Joins words or groups of words • Coordinating, Correlative, or Subordinating

33. 7. Conjunctions • Coordinating conjunctions • Connect items of equal importance and but or nor for so yet Ex. The bear turned and lumbered off into the woods. Ex. We can use a pickup truck or a jeep.

34. 7. Conjunctions • Correlative Conjunctions • Must be used as a pair… shows correlation Either… or neither… nor Both… and not only… but (also) Whether… or Ex. She helped both Carrie and me with our applications

35. 7. Conjunctions • Subordinating conjunctions • Used to begin subordinate clauses (usually adverb clauses) After before provided Although how since As if than As much as inasmuch as that Because in order that though Unless until when Where while Note: many of these words can also be used as prepositions, adverbs or relative pronouns

36. 7. Conjunctions • Examples of subordinating conjunctions • This computer is even better [than we had anticipated]. • The sun had already set [when we reached the Grand Canyon]. • [If the price is right], I will buy your bicycle. • [Since you can’t help me], I will do it myself

37. 8. Interjections • A word that expresses emotion and has no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. Oh! My goodness! Yikes! Yeah, Hooray! Sure, Awww,

38. Adverbials • The Adverb Clause • Recognize an adverb clause when you see one. • An adverb clause will meet three requirements: • First, it will contain a subject and verb. • You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought. • Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How?When? or Why?

39. Read these examples: • Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached. • How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause. • Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once they saw her car turn the corner. • When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner, an adverb clause. • After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet. • Why did Danielle cook eggs? Because she could easily chew an omelet, an adverb clause.

40. Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement • What Is Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement? • A pronoun is a word (he, she, it, they) that takes the place of a noun. An antecedent is the word the pronoun refers to or replaces. In a sentence, the antecedent comes before the pronoun. A pronoun must agree with its antecedentin person, number, and gender. • Common Rules To Follow For Agreement: • 1.      Two singular objects connected by andrequire a plural pronoun. • Ex: Julie and Mike have chosen their costumes for the party. • 2. Words such as both, several, and many are plural and require plural pronouns. • Ex: Both of my cats ate their food.

41. 3. The following words, when used as subjects, are always singular and must have singular pronouns: each everybodynobody nothing every everythingsomebody either everyone anybody someone neither Ex: Either of the boys will loan you his book. Ex: Each of the girls brought her sleeping bag.

42. Gerund Recognition Practice • Definition: A verbal is a verb form used as another part of speech. • There are 3 types of verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives.  We are going to take each of these separately in these worksheets.  We are also going to have sheets for both recognizing the verbal by itself and then as a verbal phrase.  This worksheet is just on recognizing gerunds. • Gerund: a verb form ending in -ing (present participle) used as a noun.  Thus it can be in the position of subject, direct object, object of the preposition, or predicate noun. • Examples:Subject - Reading is my favorite activity.Direct Object - I enjoy reading.Object of the Preposition - Rainy days are good days for reading.Predicate Noun - My favorite subject is reading.

43. Remember this: A word ending in -ing can be either a verb, a participle or a gerund.  To determine which one it is, you must determine how it is used in the sentence.  Do these steps: •  Find the simple subject and simple predicate. •  If the -ing form of the verb is not part of the simple predicate (verb), then determine how it is used in the sentence.  Is it in a noun position?  Then it is a gerund.  If it is used as an adjective, then it will be a participle. • Example:Bill and Tony are running.Are running is the verb in this sentence. • Bill and Tony enjoy running.Running is a gerund, a direct object of the action verb, enjoy. • The running water overflowed.Running is a participle (adjective) modifying the noun, water.

44. I. loose sentence and periodic sentence • I. loose sentence and periodic sentence • 1. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the reader know what it is mainly about when he has read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it.( A Handbook of Writing Ding Wangdao)

45. Loose or periodic? • She decided to study English though she was interested in music. • Although she was interested in music, she finally decided to study English.

46. . The definition offered in the Webster’s New World Dictionary: • Loose sentence (p.798): a sentence in which the essential elements, in the main clause, come first, followed by subordinate parts, modifiers, etc., as in a compound sentence. • Periodic sentence (p.1005): a sentence in which the essential elements, in the main clause, are withheld until the end or separated as by modifiers or subordinate clauses.

47. . The rhetoric function of loose sentence and periodic sentence 1. loose sentence • (1) loose sentence gives prominence to emphases and comes straight to the point: • She was offered a professional contract after winning the Olympic gold medal for figure skating, according to the newspaper reports.

48. 2. periodic sentence • causes anticipation and suspense in readers because the important information readers are eager to know is postposed at the end of the sentence. • Though Jim Thorpe had brought great glory to his nation, though thousands of people cheered him upon his return to the United Stages and attended banquets and a New York parade in his honor, he was not a citizen

49. Active – Passive Voice • Because passive voice sentences necessarily add words and change the normal doer-action-receiver of action direction, they may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning.

50. The passive voice does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not always to be despised. The passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations: • When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours. • When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning hours.