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This chapter explores the fundamental questions about human memory, detailing the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. It discusses how information enters memory through attention and varying processing levels, emphasizing deeper processing for better retention. The chapter differentiates between sensory, short-term, and long-term memory systems, highlighting their capacities and characteristics. Additionally, it covers retrieval mechanisms, forgetting theories, and the brain's physiology related to memory. Insights into memory illusions and the authenticity of repressed memories are also addressed, providing a comprehensive understanding of human memory.
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Human Memory: Basic Questions • How does information get into memory? • How is information maintained in memory? • How is information pulledback out of memory?
Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory • The role of attention • Focusing awareness • Divided attention
Encoding: Getting Information into Memory • The role of attention • Levels of processing • Incoming information processed at different levels • Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes • Encoding levels: • Structural = shallow • Phonemic = intermediate • Semantic = deep
Enriching Encoding • Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding • Thinking of examples • Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered • Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory
Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory • Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory • Information-processing theories • Subdivide memory into three different stores • Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
Figure 7.6 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage
Sensory Memory • Brief preservation of information in original sensory form • Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second
Short Term Memory (STM) • Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal • Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information • Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2 • Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit
Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” • STM not limited to phonemic encoding • Loss of information not only due to decay • Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of working memory • Phonological rehearsal loop • Visuospatial sketchpad • Executive control system
Long-Term Memory • Unlimited Capacity • Permanent storage? • Flashbulb memories • How is knowledge represented and organized in memory? • Schemas and Scripts • Semantic Networks • Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
Retrieval: Getting InformationOut of Memory • The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval • Retrieval cues • Reinstating the context • Context cues • Reconstructing memories • Misinformation effect • Source monitoring
Forgetting: When Memory Lapses • Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve • Retention – the proportion of material retained • Recall • Recognition • Relearning
Figure 7.10 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables
Why We Forget • Ineffective Encoding • Decay • Interference • Proactive • Retroactive • Retrieval failure • Repression • Authenticity of repressed memories? • Memory illusions • Controversy
Retrieval Failure • Encoding Specificity • Transfer-Appropriate Processing • Repression • Authenticity of repressed memories? • Memory illusions • Controversy
Figure 7.14 The prevalence of false memories observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)
The Physiology of Memory • Anatomy • Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia • Hippocampus • Medial temporal lobe memory system • Neural circuitry • Localized neural circuits • Biochemistry • Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems • Protein synthesis
Systems and Types of Memory • Declarative vs. Procedural • Semantic vs. Episodic • Prospective vs. Retrospective
