Life-Span Development Twelfth Edition

1. Life-Span Development Twelfth Edition Chapter 17: Physical Development in Late Adulthood

2. Life Expectancy and Life Span Life Span: the maximum number of years an individual can live; has remained between 120–125 years Life Expectancy: the number of years that the average person born in a particular year will probably live Has increased an average of 30 years since 1900 Average life expectancy today is 77.6 years

3. Life Expectancy and Life Span Cross-Cultural Differences: Japan has highest life expectancy (81 years) Differences in life expectancy across countries are due to factors such as health conditions and medical care Ethnic Differences: Life expectancy for African Americans is 7 years lower than that of non-Latino Whites Females’ ability to outlive males widens beginning in the mid-thirties Social factors (health, attitudes, habits, lifestyles, occupation) Biological factors Mortality Rates in Long-Lived Populations Age Adjusted Death Rates (per 100,000 people) Rank* Location Life Expectancy Eating Pattern CHD** Cancer Stroke All Causes 1 Okinawa 81.2 East-West 18 97 35 335 2 Japan 79.9 Asian 22 106 45 364 3 Hong Kong 79.1 Asian 40 126 40 393 4 Sweden 79.0 Nordic 102 108 38 435 8 Italy 78.3 Mediterranean 55 135 49 459 10 Greece 78.1 Mediterranean 55 109 70 449 18 USA 76.8 American 100 132 28 520Mortality Rates in Long-Lived Populations Age Adjusted Death Rates (per 100,000 people) Rank* Location Life Expectancy Eating Pattern CHD** Cancer Stroke All Causes 1 Okinawa 81.2 East-West 18 97 35 335 2 Japan 79.9 Asian 22 106 45 364 3 Hong Kong 79.1 Asian 40 126 40 393 4 Sweden 79.0 Nordic 102 108 38 435 8 Italy 78.3 Mediterranean 55 135 49 459 10 Greece 78.1 Mediterranean 55 109 70 449 18 USA 76.8 American 100 132 28 520

4. Life Expectancy and Life Span Number of centenarians is increasing by approximately 7% each year Getting older may not mean getting sicker Many centenarians are women Among centenarians, men are more likely to be healthier than women Ability to cope successfully with stress seems to be important to survival Other important factors: Genes and family history Health, education, personality, and lifestyle Some developmentalists divide late adulthood: Young-old are aged 65 to 74 Old-old are aged 75 or more Oldest-old are aged 85 or more The Oldest-Old: Are mostly female, widowed, and living alone Are usually hospitalized at some time in last years of life Die mostly alone in a hospital or institution Are a heterogeneous, diverse group Important to consider function rather than age Differences between levels of “old”: Compared with oldest-old, young-old have a greater potential for physical and cognitive fitness, higher levels of emotional well-being, and more effective strategies for mastering gains and losses of old age The Oldest-Old: Are mostly female, widowed, and living alone Are usually hospitalized at some time in last years of life Die mostly alone in a hospital or institution Are a heterogeneous, diverse group Important to consider function rather than age Differences between levels of “old”: Compared with oldest-old, young-old have a greater potential for physical and cognitive fitness, higher levels of emotional well-being, and more effective strategies for mastering gains and losses of old age

5. Biological Theories of Aging Cellular Clock Theory: cells can divide a maximum of 75-80 times; this places the maximum human life span at 120–125 years of age Telomeres become shorter each time a cell divides Free-Radical Theory: people age because when cells metabolize energy, the by-products include unstable oxygen molecules, or free radicals Free radicals damage DNA and other cellular structures

6. Biological Theories of Aging Mitochondrial Theory: aging is due to the decay of mitochondria Mitochondria: tiny bodies within cells that supply essential energy for function, growth, and repair Hormonal Stress Theory: aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease Prolonged, elevated levels of stress hormones are associated with increased risks for many diseases

7. The Aging Brain On average, the brain shrinks 5% to 10% between the ages of 20 and 90 May result from a decrease in dendrites, damage to myelin sheath, or the death of brain cells Some areas of the brain shrink more than others Shrinkage of the prefrontal cortex is linked with a decrease in working memory and other cognitive activities A general slowing of function in the brain and spinal cord begins in middle adulthood and accelerates in late adulthood Aging has been linked to a reduction in the production of certain neurotransmitters

8. The Adapting Brain As the brain ages, it adapts in several ways: Neurogenesis: the generation of new neurons throughout the life span Dendrite growth increases from the 40’s to 70’s Older brains rewire to compensate for losses Hemispheric lateralization can decrease; may improve cognitive functioning

9. The Immune System The immune system declines in functioning with age Extended duration of stress; diminished restorative processes Malnutrition involving low levels of protein Exercise improves the immune system, and influenza vaccination is very important for older adults

10. Physical Appearance and Movement Wrinkles and age spots become more noticeable People get shorter with aging due to bone loss in their vertebrae Weight typically drops after we reach age 60; likely because we lose muscle Older adults move more slowly than young adults Exercise and appropriate weight lifting can help reduce these declines

11. Physical Appearance and Movement

12. Sensory Development Vision: Decline in vision becomes more pronounced Adaptation to dark and driving at night becomes especially difficult Decline may be the result of a reduction in the quality or intensity of light reaching the retina Color vision may decline as a result of the yellowing of the lens of the eye Depth perception declines in late adulthood Decrease in contrast sensitivity

13. Sensory Development Diseases of the Eye: Cataracts: a thickening of the lens of the eye that causes vision to become cloudy, opaque, and distorted Glaucoma: damage to the optic nerve because of the pressure created by a buildup of fluid in the eye Macular Degeneration: deterioration of the macula of the retina, which corresponds to the focal center of the visual field

14. Sensory Development Hearing: Hearing impairments are typical in late adulthood 15% of the population over age 65 is legally deaf Usually due to degeneration of the cochlea Some (but not all) hearing problems can be corrected by hearing aids Smell and Taste: Smell and taste losses typically begin about age 60 Less decline in healthy older adults Often leads to a desire for more seasoned foods Touch and Pain: Slight decline in touch sensitivity with age Older adults are less sensitive to pain

15. Sexuality Orgasm becomes less frequent in males with age Many older adults are sexually active as long as they are healthy Older adults who do not have a partner are far less likely to be sexually active than those who have a partner Various therapies have been effective for older adults who report sexual difficulties

16. Health Problems Probability of having some disease or illness increases with age Arthritis is the most common Hypertension is the second most common Older women have a higher incidence of arthritis, hypertension, and visual problems than older men Older men are more likely than women to have hearing impairments Lifestyle and social and psychological factors are linked to health in older adults Nearly 75% of older adults die from heart disease, cancer, or cerebrovascular disease (stroke) Ethnicity is linked with death rates of older adults African Americans have high death rates for stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and female breast cancer Asian Americans and Latinos have low death rates for these diseases Cardiovascular disorders increase in late adulthood Rise in blood pressure can be linked with illness, obesity, anxiety, stiffening of blood vessels, or lack of exercise Lung capacity drops 40% between the ages of 20 and 80, even without disease Arthritis: an inflammation of the joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems Common in older adults Symptoms can be reduced with: Use of some drugs like aspirin Range-of-motion exercises Weight reduction Joint replacement in extreme cases Cardiovascular disorders increase in late adulthood Rise in blood pressure can be linked with illness, obesity, anxiety, stiffening of blood vessels, or lack of exercise Lung capacity drops 40% between the ages of 20 and 80, even without disease Arthritis: an inflammation of the joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems Common in older adults Symptoms can be reduced with: Use of some drugs like aspirin Range-of-motion exercises Weight reduction Joint replacement in extreme cases

17. Health Problems Osteoporosis: extensive loss of bone tissue Affects women more often than men Can be prevented by: Eating calcium-rich foods and vegetables Having a regular exercise program Medication Accidents: 7th leading cause of death in older adults Healing and recuperation are slower in older adults Exercise programs can reduce risks

18. Substance Abuse Medications can increase the risks associated with consuming alcohol or other drugs Majority of U.S. adults 65 and older completely abstain from alcohol Substance abuse among older adults may be an “invisible epidemic” Late-Onset Alcoholism: onset of alcoholism after the age of 65 Often related to loneliness, loss of a spouse, or a disabling condition Moderate drinking of red wine is linked to better health and increased longevity

19. Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight Exercise: Active adults are healthier and happier Benefits: Linked to increased longevity Related to prevention of common chronic diseases Associated with improvement in the treatment of many diseases Can optimize body composition and reduce the decline in motor skills as aging occurs Reduces the likelihood that older adults will develop mental health problems Linked to improved brain and cognitive functioning

20. Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight Nutrition and Weight: Some older adults restrict their dietary intake in a way that may be harmful to their health Decreased snacking between meals may contribute to harmful weight loss Calorie restriction has been proven to extend the life span of certain animals, but it is not known if this works in humans New research suggests that antioxidants may help slow the aging process and possibly prevent some diseases Other factors such as exercise, better health practices, and good nutritional habits may be actual cause of positive correlation between vitamin intake and slower aging, but more research needs to be done There is now more interest in the possible link between vitamins and cognitive performance in older adults Other factors such as exercise, better health practices, and good nutritional habits may be actual cause of positive correlation between vitamin intake and slower aging, but more research needs to be done There is now more interest in the possible link between vitamins and cognitive performance in older adults

21. Health Treatment Some studies show older adults in the U.S. receive the recommended medical care only half the time Probability of being in a nursing home or other extended-care facilities increases with age The quality of these facilities varies and is a source of concern Over 33% fail to meet minimum federal standards Many specialists recommend alternatives, such as home health care, day-care centers, and preventative medicine clinics Patient’s feelings of control and self-determination are important for health and survival in nursing homes Coping skills may reduce stress-related hormones, improving overall health

22. Chapter 18: Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood ©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

23. Multidimensionality Cognitive mechanics: the “hardware” of the mind Speed and accuracy of processes involved in sensory input, attention, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization Tends to decline with age Strongly influenced by biology and heredity Cognitive pragmatics: culture-based “software” programs of the mind Reading, writing, and educational qualifications Professional skills and language comprehension Knowledge of self and life skills May improve with age Strong cultural influences

24. Multidimensionality Speed of Processing: Speed of processing information declines in late adulthood Considerable individual variation Often due to a decline in brain and CNS functioning Attention: Selective attention: focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant Older adults are generally less adept at this Divided attention: concentrating on more than one activity at the same time When tasks are easy, age differences are minimal The more difficult the tasks, the less effectively older adults divide attention Sustained attention: readiness to detect and respond to small changes occurring at random times in the environment Older adults perform just as well on simple tasks; but performance drops on complex tasks

25. Multidimensionality Memory: Memory changes during aging but not all in the same way Episodic memory: younger adults have better episodic memory Semantic memory: does not decline as drastically as episodic memory Exception: tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Working memory and perceptual speed: decline during the late adulthood years Explicit memory: memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state Implicit memory: memory without conscious recollection; skills and routines that are automatically performed Implicit memory shows less aging declines than explicit memory Source memory: the ability to remember where one learned something Decreases with age during late adulthood Some decrements in language may appear in late adulthood Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Difficulty understanding speech due to hearing problems Speech of older adults is typically lower in volume, slower, less precisely articulated, and less fluent Non-language factors may be responsible for some of the decline in language skills Slower information processing speed Decline in working memorySome decrements in language may appear in late adulthood Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Difficulty understanding speech due to hearing problems Speech of older adults is typically lower in volume, slower, less precisely articulated, and less fluent Non-language factors may be responsible for some of the decline in language skills Slower information processing speed Decline in working memory

26. Multidimensionality Wisdom: Wisdom: expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters High levels of wisdom are rare Late adolescence to early adulthood is the main age window for wisdom to emerge Personality-related factors are better predictors of wisdom than cognitive factors Factors other than age are critical for wisdom to develop to a high level Factors other than age are critical for wisdom to develop to a high level

27. Use It or lose it Changes in cognitive activity patterns can result in disuse and lead to atrophy of skills Certain mental activities can benefit the maintenance of cognitive skills Reading books, doing crossword puzzles, going to lectures and concerts Research suggests that mental exercise may reduce cognitive decline and lower the likelihood of developing Alzheimer disease Training can improve the cognitive skills of many older adults There is some loss in plasticity in late adulthood, especially in the oldest-old Improving the physical fitness of older adults can improve their cognitive functioning Training can improve the cognitive skills of many older adults There is some loss in plasticity in late adulthood, especially in the oldest-old Improving the physical fitness of older adults can improve their cognitive functioning

28. Retirement On average, workers spend 10%–15% of their lives in retirement Life paths for individuals in their 60’s: Some continue work Some retire from their career work and start a new and different job Some retire from career jobs but do volunteer work Some move in and out of the work force Some individuals move to a disability status and eventually into retirement Some who are laid off define it as “retirement” Retirement is a process, not an event Older adults who adjust best to retirement: Have an adequate income Are better educated Are healthy and active Have extended social networks and family Were satisfied with their lives before retiring

29. Mental Health: Depression Major depression: mood disorder in which the individual is deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored Depressive symptoms increase in the oldest-old Higher percentage of women More physical disability More cognitive impairment Lower socioeconomic status Women show more depression at 50 and 60 years of age, but depression in men increases from 60 to 80 Depression does not become more frequent in late adulthood Fewer economic hardships Fewer negative social exchanges Increased religiosityDepression does not become more frequent in late adulthood Fewer economic hardships Fewer negative social exchanges Increased religiosity

30. Mental Health: Depression Common predictors: Earlier depressive symptoms Poor health or disability Loss events Low social support 25% of individuals who commit suicide in the U.S. are 65 years of age or older Older adult most likely to commit suicide is a male who lives alone, has lost his spouse, and is experiencing failing health

31. Dementia and Alzheimer Disease Dementia: any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning 20% of individuals over the age of 80 have dementia Alzheimer Disease: a common form of dementia that is characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function Rates could triple within the next 50 years as people live longer Divided into early-onset (younger than 65) or late-onset (later than 65)

32. Dementia and Alzheimer Disease Alzheimer Disease (continued): Alzheimer involves a deficiency in the brain messenger chemical acetylcholine Brain shrinks and deteriorates as memory ability decreases Formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles Age is an important risk factor, and genes also play an important role Healthy lifestyle factors may lower the risk Mild Cognitive Impairment represents a transitional state between the cognitive changes of normal aging and very early disease Deficits in episodic memory appear to be an especially important early indication of risk Several medications have been approved to treat Alzheimer disease Mild Cognitive Impairment represents a transitional state between the cognitive changes of normal aging and very early disease Deficits in episodic memory appear to be an especially important early indication of risk Several medications have been approved to treat Alzheimer disease

33. Dementia and Alzheimer Disease Caring for people with Alzheimer is a major concern Support is often emotionally and physically draining for the family 50% of family caregivers report depression Female caregivers report more caregiving hours, higher levels of burden and depression, and lower levels of well-being and physical health than male caregivers Respite care services have been developed to help people who take care of family members with Alzheimer disease

34. Dementia and Parkinson Disease Multi-Infarct Dementia: a sporadic and progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated temporary obstruction of blood flow in cerebral arteries More common among men with a history of high blood pressure Recovery is possible Parkinson Disease: a chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and facial paralysis Triggered by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain Several treatments are available

35. Religion Religion is: More significant in older adults’ lives Related to a sense of meaning in life Related to higher levels of life satisfaction, optimism, and self-esteem Associated with better health Perhaps associated with living longer

36. Life-Span DevelopmentTwelfth Edition Chapter 19 Socioemotional Development in Late Adulthood

37. THEORIES OF SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Erikson’s Theory: Integrity vs. Despair: involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one’s life has not been well spent Life review: looking back at one’s life experiences, evaluating them, and interpreting/reinterpreting them Life review is set in motion by looking forward to death Can include sociocultural dimensions, interpersonal/relationship dimensions, and personal dimensions Erikson’s Theory (continued): Regrets involve four major themes: Mistakes and bad decisions Hard times Social relationships Missed educational opportunities Reminiscence therapy: discussing past activities and experiences with another individual or group Erikson’s Theory (continued): Regrets involve four major themes: Mistakes and bad decisions Hard times Social relationships Missed educational opportunities Reminiscence therapy: discussing past activities and experiences with another individual or group

38. THEORIES OF SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Activity Theory: the more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives Suggests that individuals will achieve greater life satisfaction if they continue their middle-adulthood roles into late adulthood

39. THEORIES OF SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Socioemotional Selectivity Theory: older adults become more selective about their social networks, spending more time with individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships Two important classes of goals: Knowledge-related Emotional Trajectory for each type of goal is different When time is perceived as open-ended, knowledge-related goals are pursued more often As older adults perceive that they have less time left, emotional goals become more important

40. THEORIES OF SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Selective Optimization with Compensation Theory: successful aging is linked with three main factors: Selection: older adults have a reduced capacity and loss of functioning, which require a reduction in performance in most life domains Optimization: it is possible to maintain performance in some areas through continued practice and the use of new technologies Compensation: older adults need to compensate when life tasks require a higher level of capacity

41. Personality Conscientiousness predicts lower mortality risk from childhood through late adulthood Low conscientiousness and high neuroticism predicts earlier death Older adults characterized by negative affect do not live as long as those characterized by more positive affect

42. The Self and Society Self-Esteem: Tends to be higher for males than females; difference disappears in the 70’s and 80’s Tends to decline significantly in the 70’s and 80’s Deteriorating physical health Negative societal attitudes toward older adults Possible Selves: what individuals might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming

43. The Self and Society Self-Acceptance: depends on whether the individual is describing their past, present, future, or ideal selves Self-Control: a majority of adults in their 60’s and 70’s report being in control of their lives Accommodating control strategies increase in importance, and assimilative control strategies decrease in importance Domain-specific

44. Older Adults in Society Ageism: prejudice against others because of their age Stereotypes against older adults are often negative Most frequent form is disrespect, followed by assumptions about ailments or frailty caused by age Concern that the economy cannot bear the burden of so many older persons Problems involving health care Increasing health care costs Medical system is based on a “cure” rather than “care” model

45. Older Adults in Society Income: 10%–12% of older people are living in poverty Varies by gender and ethnicity Average income for retired individuals is about half what they earned when they were fully employed Living Arrangements: 95% of older adults live in the community Two-thirds live with family members, one-third alone Half of older women 75 years and older live alone Technology: Older adults are less likely to have a computer in their home and less likely to use the Internet Older adults spend more time on the Internet, visit more Web sites, and spend more money on the Internet than young adults Eldercare: physical and emotional caretaking of older members of the family Generational Inequity: the view that our aging society is being unfair to its younger members Controversial issue Eldercare: physical and emotional caretaking of older members of the family Generational Inequity: the view that our aging society is being unfair to its younger members Controversial issue

46. Lifestyle Diversity Married Older Adults: 56% of U.S. adults over 65 are married; 45% of older adult women are widows Marital satisfaction is greater in older adults than middle-aged adults Retirement alters a couple’s lifestyle Greatest changes occur in the traditional family Older adults who are married or partnered are usually happier and live longer than those who are single Marital satisfaction is often greater for men than women Divorced and Separated Older Adults: Represent only 8% of older adults Social, financial, and physical consequences of divorce Weakening of family ties Less financial resources Linked to more health problems Remarriage is increasing due to rising divorce rates, increased longevity, and better health Some older adults perceive negative social pressure about their decision to remarry Majority of adult children support the decision of their older adult parents to remarry

47. Friendship Research on Friendship: Friendships have been found to be more important than family relationships in predicting mental health Individuals with close ties to friends were less likely to die across a 7-year period Unmarried older adults with a strong network of friends fared better physically and psychologically than other unmarried older adults

48. Social Support and Social Integration Convoy Model of Social Relations: individuals go through life embedded in a personal network of individuals from whom they give and receive social support Social Support: Improves physical and mental health Reduces symptoms of disease Increases one’s ability to meet health-care needs Decreases risk of institutionalization Associated with lower rates of depression Social Integration: Greater interest in spending time with a small circle of friends and family Low level of social integration is linked with coronary heart disease Being a part of a social network is linked with longevity, especially for men

49. Altruism and Volunteerism Older adults benefit from altruism and engaging in volunteer activities Helping others may reduce stress hormones, which improves cardiovascular health and strengthens the immune system Volunteering is associated with a number of positive outcomes More satisfaction with life Less depression and anxiety Better physical health

50. Ethnicity Ethnicity: African Americans and Latinos are overrepresented in poverty statistics Elderly ethnic minority individuals face both ageism and racism More likely to become ill but less likely to receive treatment Many never reach the age of eligibility for Social Security benefits Many ethnic minority individuals have developed coping mechanisms that allow them to survive Extended family networks Churches Residential concentrations of ethnic minority groups

51. Gender Gender: Some developmentalists believe that there is decreasing femininity in women and decreasing masculinity in men during late adulthood Older men often become more feminine, but women do not necessarily become more masculine Older adult females face ageism and sexism Poverty rate for older adult females is almost double that of older adult males

52. Successful Aging Being an older adult has many positive aspects Older adults’ functioning is the result of better health habits such as: Eating a proper diet Having an active lifestyle Engaging in mental stimulation and flexibility Having positive coping skills Having good social relationships and support Avoiding disease Successful aging involves having a sense of self-efficacy and a perceived control of environment.