1. Rhetoric The art of using words to persuade in writing or speaking.

2. Argumentation or Persuasion • An essay that addresses a specific purpose • Has a targeted audience • Requires reasoning • An effective argument is a well-constructed presentation of ideas that takes a stand about an issue. • Often this is called a claim or thesis statement • Is supported with various evidence or premises

3. Methods of organization • Order of importance • Chain of reasoning • Cause and effect • Rebuttal • Concession/refutation • Process analysis

4. Writers will use the various modes of discourse to support their claims with a combination of both logical (logos) and emotional (pathos) evidence to establish their credibility as writers or their ethical appeal (ethos).

5. Four Modes of Discourse • Description • Depicts images verbally in space and time • Narration • Tells a story or relates an event • Exposition • Informs, instructs, or presents ideas/truths • Argumentation • Convinces, proves, or refutes a point of view or issue

6. Elements of Argumentation • Purpose • Audience • Appeals of Logic, Emotion, and Ethics • Classical Structure • Introductory Paragraph • Concession and Refutation • Confirmation Paragraphs • Concluding Paragraph

7. PURPOSE: might be to • Support a cause • Promote a change • Refute a theory • Stimulate interest • Win agreement • Arouse sympathy • Provoke anger

8. AUDIENCE: writer’s targeted readers • Who is exactly is the audience? • What do they know? • What do they believe? • What do they expect? • How will the audience disagree with me? • What will they want me to address or answer: • How can I—or should I—use jargon? • Should I use language that is formal, factual, and objective—or familiar, anecdotal, and personal?

9. Appeals of Logic, Emotion, and Ethics • Types of Logical Appeals (logos) • Emotional Appeals (pathos) • Ethical Appeal (ethos)

10. Logos (logic) • Incorporate inductive reasoning. • Use deductive reasoning • Create a syllogism • Cite traditional culture • Cite commonly held beliefs • Allude to history, religious texts, great literature, or mythology • Manipulate the style. • Employ various modes of discourse for specific effects

11. Logos, cont. • Provide testimony • Draw analogies/create metaphors • Order chronologically • Provide evidence • Classify evidence • Cite authorities • Quote research • Use facts • Theorize about cause and effect • Argue from precedent

12. Pathos (emotional appeal) • Use language that involves the senses. • Include a bias or prejudice • Include an anecdote • Include connotative language • Explore euphemisms • Use description • Use figurative language • Develop tone • Experiment with informal language

13. Ethos (ethical appeal) • Show written voice in the argument • Make the audience believe that the writer is trustworthy • Demonstrate that the writer put in research time • Support reasons with appropriate, logical evidence

14. Ethos, cont. • Present a carefully crafted and edited argument • Demonstrate that the writer knows the audience and respects them • Show concern about communicating with the audience • Convince the audience that the writer is reliable and knowledgeable