1. Generalization and Reasoning example: Assume that what is true of one or some members of a class will also be true of others or the whole class. The evidence is the presentation of specific intense. The inference is that these are representative of others.

2. Cause ( Causal Arguments) : • Arguments from cause claim that one condition or event contributes or brings about another condition or event. • “Weak” cause: first condition must be present for effect to occur. • “Strong” cause: first condition guarantees effect will occur. • Evidence is the physical presence of cause and effect. • Inference is that one condition or event brings about the other.

3. Coexistential Arguments: • Claim that two things coexist. • Reason from something that can be observed to a condition that cannot be observed. • What is known is the concrete sign, what is unknown or claimed is the condition. • Could reason from a person’s acts to his or her character, or from an authoritative statement to unobservable condition.

4. Dissociation: • Disengages two ideas. • Assigns a positive value to one of the two ideas and a lesser value to the other. • Can usually be stated in a “ not this.. But that” form. • Based on accepted value evidence. • Link is to a less accepted or unorganized value.