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Terrorism

Terrorism. With a Focus on Salafi-Jihad. Defining Terrorism. Arafat, 1974: “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.”

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Terrorism

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  1. Terrorism With a Focus on Salafi-Jihad

  2. Defining Terrorism • Arafat, 1974: “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.” • Ackerman and LaFee 2009: 'the threatened or actual use of illegal force directed against civilian targets by nonstate actors in order to attain a political goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation.'

  3. Terrorism • State (i.e. genocide) or non-state • Suicidal or non-suicidal • Role of spectacle, aimed at changing mass opinion • Rational/strategic or irrational • Driven by grievances or ideology, i.e. instrumental or cultural?

  4. Linked to a Range of Ideologies • Anarchists, 19th c • Socialist • Nationalist • Religious • Here we focus on Salafi (Sunni Fundamentalist) Islamic Jihadism

  5. Origins of Salafi-Jihad • Challenge of secular nationalism • Role of Muslim Brothers • Al-Jihad • Gamaat Islamiya

  6. Intellectual Origins • Qutb, Faraj in Egypt • Mawdudi in Pakistan • Shariati, Khomeini in Iran • Reinterpretation of jihad • From spirit to combat • 'Defensive' jihad as a religious obligation

  7. Home Front: Muslim World • Qutb, Khoimeini, Mawdudi influence Al-Jihad in Egypt • Afghanistan: Saudi, Pakistani and US backing • 1982-92, some 35,000 volunteers from 43 countries • Also tens of thousands of madrassa students • Over 100,000 foreign radicals experienced the conflict • 'blowback': GIA in Algeria, jihad across the Muslim world • Al Qaeda forms in Afghanistan

  8. Salafi-Jihad: From Local to Global • Cross-fertilization, cosmopolitan view of the world • Afghanistan veterans 1979-87. Azzam and bin Laden • Taliban's horizons widened • Riyadh and Peshawar prior to 1990s

  9. 'Blowback' in the West from Afghan-Soviet War • 1993 World Trade Center bombing – Sheik Abdel Rahman • 1994-5 hijacking and summer bombing campaign in France - Groupe Islamique Armee (GIA)

  10. Rise in Overseas Terrorism • 1995 Paris Metro Bombing • 1998 US Embassy Bombings • 2000 USS Cole, Aden • 2 of 64 terrorist movements were religious in the 1980s, this jumped to 46 percent by 1995. (Philpott 2007: 520)

  11. 1972 v January 2008

  12. 1990s Spread • Paris (up to 1994), New York (to 2001) and London (up to 2003) as centres. Also Hamburg, Stockholm, Aachen, Brussels… • GIA in Stockholm, Gamaa in Copenhagen • 'Londonistan': Abu Hamza, Abu Qatada, Abu Musab, Ayman al-Zawahiri • Newspapers like Al-Ansar globalise the Algerian struggle

  13. Failure of Sunni Islamic Revolution • Only successes in 70s Iran, 80s Sudan, 90s Afghanistan • Failure of jihad in Algeria, 1997 • Crushed or contained in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Maghreb • Downfall of Taliban, 2001 • Zarqawi's Failure in Iraq 2007-8 • Shift to Terrorism as spectacle

  14. Al Qaeda and Global Terrorism • Collapse of command structure, rise of Al Qaeda 'brand' and local cells • Role of Globalisation: Headline-grabbing attacks beamed around the world. Enhances symbolic power • Status and Martyrdom rather than a strategy for Islamic revolution?

  15. Why Salafi-Jihadi Terror in the West? • Political Grievances: Iraq, Palestine, Support of secular nationalist regimes • Apocalyptic Martyrdom:Bukhari (52:54) - The words of Muhammad: "I would love to be martyred in Allah's Cause and then get resurrected and then get martyred, and then get resurrected again and then get martyred and then get resurrected again and then get martyred."

  16. Religion and Terror • Devout Muslims no more likely to support violence (Tessler 2007); BUT • Those who support Islamic state are more likely to support violence (Fair 2006) • How radicalised?: • Religiously illiterate: videos, internet and prison • Religious fundamentalists: networks of friends in Salafi mosques (Sageman); terrorism as spiritual act (Maher)

  17. Rewards to Suicide Terrorists • Altruistic suicide: • Esteem of martyrdom, wealth to family (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) • Proof: higher-than-average social profile (Pape) • Anomic suicide: • Family disapproves (ie some 7/7 bombers) • Lower-than-average social profile for European bombers

  18. Muslim World Public Opinion • Many support attacks on western military targets (i.e. Iraq, Afghanistan) • Do not support attacks at home – especially after Islamists claim many Muslim victims • Few European Muslims support, but there is an important 10-20 pc minority in support or in sympathy • Do terrorists even care about or need public support? Clearly not Aum Shinrikyo in Japan; some say QAP was a self-contained network of Arab-Afghans

  19. Nationalistic aspects • State-sponsorship by Iran, Sudan, Taliban Afghanistan, competing with Saudis for world Islamist leadership • Anti-western, anti-occupation, territorial, historically conscious • Shari'a as anti-western symbol? • Localised nature of many conflicts, ie Chechnya, Aceh, Moros, Palestine

  20. Debate • Strategic or Apocalyptic • Rational or Emotional/Vengeful • Nationalistic or Religious-Apocalyptic

  21. Strategic View • Foremost advocate is Robert Pape • Suicide Terror as rational-strategic and nationalistic rather than religious

  22. Suicide Terror as Rational Nationalism • Key aspects • Only when a foreign occupier is present • Occupier is a democracy • Religious difference between occupier and natives • Nationalist aspect • Goal is strategic: to convince democratic electorates to give up

  23. Not Religious • Suicide Terrorists Included: • Secular kamikaze pilots • Marxist Tamil Tigers • Secular Nationalist Christians in Lebanon, 1982-3

  24. Alternative View • Terrorism linked to ideologies • Religious and secular types • Chiliasm-millenarianism • Perfectionist ideal – sometimes in the past, sometimes totally new • Revolutionary Impulse • Very close link to violence • Eschatological/ apocalyptic

  25. Modernity Shapes Ideology • Modernity emphasises action, not withdrawal • Modernity pushes for a rationalisation of religious content • Modernity means modern arms and organisation • Globalisation and mass media act as force multiplier for spectacle of terrorism

  26. Secular or Religious Forms • Paranoia, in a sea of enemies: Manichaean view of the world; 'cosmic war' • History has a direction • Secular Ideologies are forms of chiliastic religion • Medieval millenarian movements, French Revolutionary Terror, anarchists, Soviets, Nazis, Islamists, Neoconservatives

  27. Conclusion: Questions • Is Salafi-Jihad: • strategic or irrational? • Nationalistic or Chiliastic? • Driven by grievances & hatred, or by prospect of martyrdom and/or millennium • Do terrorists act with or without public support? • Is religious terrorism worse than any other kind? • When/why does the jihad move to the global level, and when back to the local? • Role of globalisation and modernity

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