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PRINCIPLES OF BIOCHEMISTRY

PRINCIPLES OF BIOCHEMISTRY. Chapter 22 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids, Nucleotides, and Related Molecules. 22.1 Overview of Nitrogen Metabolism 22.2 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids 22.3 Molecules Derived from Amino Acids 22.4 Biosynthesis and Degradation of Nucleotides.

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PRINCIPLES OF BIOCHEMISTRY

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  1. PRINCIPLES OF BIOCHEMISTRY Chapter 22 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids, Nucleotides, and Related Molecules

  2. 22.1 Overview of Nitrogen Metabolism 22.2 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids 22.3 Molecules Derived from Amino Acids 22.4 Biosynthesis and Degradation of Nucleotides p.851

  3. 22.1 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acidsand Eicosanoids The Nitrogen Cycle Maintains a Pool of Biologically Available Nitrogen • In the biosphere, the metabolic processes of different species function interdependently to salvage and reuse biologically available nitrogen in a vast nitrogen cycle(Fig. 22–1). The first step in the cycle is fixation(reduction) of atmospheric nitrogen by nitrogen-fixing bacteria to yield ammonia (NH3 or NH4+). p.852

  4. FIGURE 22-1 FIGURE 22–1 The nitrogen cycle. p.852

  5. Although ammonia can be used by most living organisms, soil bacteria that derive their energy by oxidizing ammonia to nitrite (NO2–) and ultimately nitrate (NO3–) are so abundant and active that nearly all ammonia reaching the soil is oxidized to nitrate. This process is known as nitrification. • A balance is maintained between fixed nitrogen and atmospheric nitrogen by bacteria that convert nitrate to N2 under anaerobic conditions, a process called denitrification. p.852

  6. Nitrogen Is Fixed by Enzymes of the Nitrogenase Complex • Only certain bacteria and archaea can fix atmospheric nitrogen. These include the cyanobacteria of soils and fresh and salt waters, methanogenic archaea, other kinds of free-living soil bacteria such as Azotobacter species, and the nitrogenfixing bacteria that live as symbiontsin the root nodules of leguminous plants. p.852

  7. Biological nitrogen fixation is carried out by a highly conserved complex of proteins called the nitrogenase complex(Fig. 22–2), the crucial components of which are dinitrogenase reductaseand dinitrogenase (Fig. 22–3). • Nitrogen fixation is carried out by a highly reduced form of dinitrogenase and requires eight electrons: six for the reduction of N2 and two to produce one molecule of H2 as an obligate part of the reaction mechanism. p.854

  8. FIGURE 22-2 FIGURE 22–2 Nitrogen fixation by the nitrogenase complex. p.855

  9. FIGURE 22-3(a) FIGURE 22–3 Enzymes and cofactors of the nitrogenase complex. p.855

  10. FIGURE 22-3(b) p.855

  11. FIGURE 22-3(c) p.855

  12. The immediate source of electrons to reduce dinitrogenase reductase varies, with reduced ferredoxin, reduced flavodoxin, and perhaps other sources playing a role. • The symbiotic relationship between leguminous plants and the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules (Fig. 22–4)takes care of both the energy requirements and the oxygen lability of the nitrogenase complex. p.856

  13. FIGURE 22-4 FIGURE 22–4 Nitrogen-fixing nodules. p.856

  14. Ammonia Is Incorporated into Biomolecules through Glutamate and Glutamine • Two amino acids, glutamateand glutamine, provide the critical entry point. • The biosynthetic pathways to glutamate and glutamine are simple, and all or some of the steps occur in most organisms. The most important pathway for the assimilation of NH4+ into glutamate requires two reactions. First, glutamine synthetasecatalyzes the reaction of glutamate and NH4+ to yield glutamine. p.857

  15. (1) Glutamate + ATP →γ-glutamyl phosphate + ADP (2) γ-Glutamyl phosphate + NH4+ → glutamine + Pi + H+ Sum: Glutamate + NH4+ + ATP → glutamine + ADP + Pi + H+ • In bacteria and plants, glutamate is produced from glutamine in a reaction catalyzed by glutamate synthase. α-Ketoglutarate + glutamine + NADPH + H+ → 2 glutamate + NADP+ α-Ketoglutarate + NH4+ + NADPH + ATP → L-glutamate + NADP+ + ADP + Pi p.857

  16. Glutamine Synthetase Is a Primary Regulatory Point in Nitrogen Metabolism • The activity of glutamine synthetase is regulated in virtually all organisms. • The enzyme has 12 identical subunits of Mr 50,000 (Fig. 22–5)and is regulated both allosterically and by covalent modification. Alanine, glycine, and at least six end products of glutamine metabolism are allosteric inhibitors of the enzyme (Fig. 22–6). p.857

  17. FIGURE 22-5(a) FIGURE 22–5 Subunit structure of glutamine synthetase as determined by x-ray diffraction. p.858

  18. FIGURE 22-5(b) p.858

  19. FIGURE 22–6 FIGURE 22–6 Allosteric regulation of glutamine synthetase. p.858

  20. Superimposed on the allosteric regulation is inhibition by adenylylation of (addition of AMP to) Tyr397, located near the enzyme’s active site (Fig. 22–7). • Both adenylylation and deadenylylation are promoted by adenylyltransferase(AT in Fig. 22–7), part of a complex enzymatic cascade that responds to levels of glutamine, α-ketoglutarate, ATP, and Pi. p.858

  21. FIGURE 22–7(a) FIGURE 22–7 Second level of regulation of glutamine synthetase: covalent modifications. p.859

  22. FIGURE 22–7(b) p.859

  23. Several Classes of Reactions Play Special Roles in the Biosynthesis of Amino Acids and Nucleotides • (1) Transamination reactions and other rearrangements promoted by enzymes containing pyridoxal phosphate; (2) transfer of one-carbon groups, with either tetrahydrofolate or S-adenosylmethionine; and (3) transfer of amino groups derived from the amide nitrogen of glutamine. • The enzymes catalyzing these reactions are called glutamine amidotransferases. p.859

  24. FIGURE 22–8 FIGURE 22–8 Proposed mechanism for glutamine amidotransferases. p.860

  25. 22.2 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids • All amino acids are derived from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway (Fig. 22–9). • Organisms vary greatly in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Whereas most bacteria and plants can synthesize all 20, mammals can synthesize only about half of them. • These are the nonessential amino acids, not needed in the diet. The remainder, the essential amino acids, must be obtained from food. p.860

  26. A useful way to organize these biosynthetic pathways is to group them into six families corresponding to their metabolic precursors (Table 22–1), and we use this approach to structure the detailed descriptions that follow. In addition to these six precursors, there is a notable intermediate in several pathways of amino acid and nucleotide synthesis: 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP): p.860

  27. FIGURE 22–9 Part 1 FIGURE 22–9 Overview of amino acid biosynthesis. p.861

  28. FIGURE 22–9 Part 2 p.861

  29. TABLE 22-1 p.861

  30. PRPP is synthesized from ribose 5-phosphate derived from the pentose phosphate pathway, in a reaction catalyzed by ribose phosphate pyrophosphokinase: Ribose 5-phosphate + ATP → 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate + AMP p.861

  31. α-Ketoglutarate Gives Rise to Glutamate, Glutamine, Proline, and Arginine • We have already described the biosynthesis of glutamateand glutamine. Prolineis a cyclized derivative of glutamate (Fig. 22–10). p.861

  32. FIGURE 22–10 Part 1 FIGURE 22–10 Biosynthesis of proline and arginine from glutamate in bacteria. p.862

  33. FIGURE 22–10 Part 2 p.862

  34. Arginineis synthesized from glutamate via ornithine and the urea cycle in animals. • The pathways to proline and arginine are somewhat different in mammals. • Arginase, a urea cycle enzyme, converts arginine to ornithine and urea. The ornithine is converted to glutamate γ–semialdehyde by the enzyme ornithine δ–aminotransferase(Fig. 22–11). p.863

  35. FIGURE 22-11 FIGURE 22–11 Ornithine δ-aminotransferase reaction: a step in the mammalian pathway to proline. p.863

  36. Serine, Glycine, and Cysteine Are Derived from 3-Phosphoglycerate • The major pathway for the formation ofserine is the same in all organisms (Fig. 22–12). p.863

  37. FIGURE 22-12 Part 1 FIGURE 22–12 Biosynthesis of serine from 3-phosphoglycerate and of glycine from serine in all organisms. p.863

  38. FIGURE 22-12 Part 2 p.863

  39. Serine (three carbons) is the precursor of glycine through removal of a carbon atom by serine hydroxymethyltransferase. • In the liver of vertebrates, glycine can be made by another route: the reverse of the reaction shown in Figure 18–20c, catalyzed by glycine synthase(also called glycine cleavage enzyme): CO2 + NH4+ + N5,N10-methylenetetrahydrofolate + NADH + H+ ─→ glycine + tetrahydrofolate + NAD+ p.864

  40. Plants and bacteria produce the reduced sulfur required for the synthesis ofcysteinefrom environmental sulfates; the pathway is shown on the right side of Figure 22–13. • Methionine is first converted to S-adenosylmethionine. This demethylated product is hydrolyzed to free homocysteine, which undergoes a reaction with serine, catalyzed by cystathionine β-synthase, to yield cystathionine (Fig. 22–14). p.864

  41. FIGURE 22–13 FIGURE 22–13 Biosynthesis of cysteine from serine in bacteria and plants. p.864

  42. FIGURE 22-14 FIGURE 22–14 Biosynthesis of cysteine from homocysteine and serine in mammals. p.865

  43. Three Nonessential and Six Essential Amino Acids Are Synthesized from Oxaloacetate and Pyruvate p.865

  44. Alanineand aspartateare synthesized from pyruvate and oxaloacetate, respectively, by transamination from glutamate. Asparagineis synthesized by amidation of aspartate, with glutamine donating the NH4+. • Aspartate gives rise to methionine, threonine, and lysine. • The valineand isoleucinepathways share four enzymes. • An intermediate in the valine pathway, α-ketoisovalerate, is the starting point for a four-step branch pathway leading to leucine. p.865

  45. Chorismate Is a Key Intermediate in the Synthesis of Tryptophan, Phenylalanine, and Tyrosine p.865

  46. In the tryptophanbranch, chorismate is converted to anthranilate in a reaction in which glutamine donates the nitrogen that will become part of the indole ring. • The indole ring of tryptophan is derived from the ring carbons and amino group of anthranilate plus two carbons derived from PRPP. The final reaction in the sequence is catalyzed by tryptophan synthase. Indole-3-glycerol phosphate ──→ indole + glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Indole + serine ──→ tryptophan + H2O α subunit α subunit p.868

  47. The second part of the reaction requires pyridoxal phosphate. • In plants and bacteria, phenylalanineand tyrosineare synthesized from chorismate in pathways much less complex than the tryptophan pathway. • Animals can produce tyrosine directly from phenylalanine through hydroxylation at C-4 of the phenyl group by phenylalanine hydroxylase. p.869

  48. Histidine Biosynthesis Uses Precursors of Purine Biosynthesis • The pathway to histidinein all plants and bacteria differs in several respects from other amino acid biosynthetic pathways. Histidine is derived from three precursors (Fig. 22–20): PRPP contributes five carbons, the purine ring of ATP contributes a nitrogen and a carbon, and glutamine supplies the second ring nitrogen. p.869

  49. Amino Acid Biosynthesis Is under Allosteric Regulation • Figure 22–21shows the allosteric regulation of isoleucine synthesis from threonine. • Allosteric regulation of an individual enzyme can be considerably more complex. Such regulation is called concerted inhibition. • Figure 22–22shows how E. coli cells coordinate the synthesis of lysine, methionine, threonine, and isoleucine, all made from aspartate. p.872

  50. FIGURE 22-21 FIGURE 22–21 Allosteric regulation of isoleucine biosynthesis. p.872

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