Chapter 4

1. Chapter 4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People

2. Social Perception • Social perception is defined as the study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people.

3. Chapter Outline I. Nonverbal Behavior

4. Nonverbal Behavior • Nonverbal communication is defined as the way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words.

5. Nonverbal Behavior • Nonverbal behavior is used to express emotion, convey attitudes, communicate personality traits, and to facilitate or modify verbal communication.

6. Nonverbal Behavior • Facial Expressions Charles Darwin believed that human emotional expressions are universal -- that all humans encode and decode expressions in the same way

7. Nonverbal Behavior • Facial Expressions Modern research suggests that Darwin was right for the six major emotional expressions: anger, happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, and sadness.

8. Nonverbal Behavior • Facial Expressions Current research examines whether other emotions have distinct and universal facial expressions associated with them.

9. Nonverbal Behavior • Facial Expressions Culture also influences emotional expression; display rules that are unique to each culture dictate when different nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display.

10. Nonverbal Behavior • Facial Expressions Facial expressions may sometimes be hard to interpret accurately because people may display blends of multiple affects simultaneously.

11. Nonverbal Behavior • Other Channels of Nonverbal Communication Eye contact and gaze are also powerful nonverbal cues. The use of personal space is a nonverbal behavior with wide cultural variation. Emblems are nonverbal gestures that have well understood definitions within a given culture.

12. Nonverbal Behavior • Multichannel Nonverbal Communication In everyday life, we usually receive information from multiple channels simultaneously.

13. Nonverbal Behavior • Gender Differences in Nonverbal Communication Women are better than men at both decoding and encoding nonverbal behavior if people are telling the truth. Men, however, are better at detecting lies. This finding can be explained by social-role theory, which claims that sex differences in social behavior are due to society’s division of labor between the sexes.

14. Chapter Outline II. Implicit Personality Theories: Filling in the Blanks

15. Implicit Personality Theories • An implicit personality theory is a type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together. Using these theories helps us form well-developed impressions of other people quickly.

16. Implicit Personality Theories • The Role of Culture in Implicit Personality Theories Hoffman and colleagues (1986) found that cultural implicit personality theories affect how people form impressions of others.

17. Chapter Outline III. Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question

18. Causal Attribution • Although nonverbal behavior may be relatively easy to decode, there is still substantial ambiguity about why people act the way they do.

19. Causal Attribution • Attribution theory is a description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior.

20. Causal Attribution • The Nature of the Attribution Process Fritz Heider is considered the father of attribution theory. He believed that people are like amateur scientists, trying to understand other people’s behavior by piecing together information until they arrive at a reasonable cause.

21. Causal Attribution • The Nature of the Attribution Process He proposed a simple dichotomy for people’s explanations: internal attributions and external attributions.

22. Causal Attribution • The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External Attributions The covariation model states that in order to form an attribution about what caused a person’s behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence (or absence) of possible causal factors and focus on the consensus information, distinctiveness information, and consistency information we gather from the situation.

23. Causal Attribution • The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External Attributions According to the covariation model, consensus information is the information regarding how other people besides the actor treat the target, distinctiveness information is the information about how the actor treats other people besides the target, and consistency information is the information about how the actor treats the target across time and different situations.

24. Causal Attribution • The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External Attributions People are most likely to make an internal attribution (attribute the behavior to the actor) when consensus and distinctiveness are low but consistency is high; they are most likely to make an external attribution (attribute the behavior to the target and/or situation) when consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency are all high.

25. Causal Attribution • The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External Attributions The covariation model assumes that people make causal attributions in a rational, logical fashion.

26. Causal Attribution • The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which a person’s behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors.

27. Causal Attribution • The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists One reason people make the fundamental attribution error is that observers focus their attention on actors, while the situational causes of the actor’s behavior are less salient and may be unknown.

28. Causal Attribution • The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists Thus, perceptual salience, or the information that is the focus of people’s attention, helps explain why the fundamental attribution error is prevalent.

29. Causal Attribution • The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists The Two-Step Process of Attribution occurs when people analyze another person’s behavior -- they typically make an internal attribution automatically; they then may consciously choose to engage in the effortful, second step in the process, whereby they think about possible situational reasons for the behavior; after engaging in the second step, they may adjust their original internal attribution to take into account situational factors.

30. Causal Attribution • The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists The spotlight effect occurs when people overestimate the extent to which their behaviors and appearance are noticed by others. This indicates that people are aware of others’ tendencies to commit the fundamental attribution error.

31. Causal Attribution • The Actor/Observer Difference The actor/observer difference is the tendency to see other people’s behavior as dispositionally caused, while focusing more on the role of situational factors when explaining one’s own behavior.

32. Causal Attribution • The Actor/Observer Difference One reason for the actor/observer difference is perceptual salience: actors notice the situations around them that influence them to act, while observers notice the actors.

33. Causal Attribution • The Actor/Observer Difference The actor/observer difference also occurs because actors have more information about themselves than do observers.

34. Causal Attribution • Self-Serving Attributions Self-serving attributions are explanations for one’s successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one’s failures that blame external, situational factors.

35. Causal Attribution • Self-Serving Attributions One reason people make self-serving attributions is to maintain their self-esteem. A second reason is self-presentational, to maintain the perceptions others have of one. A third reason is because people have information about their behavior in other situations, which may lead to positive outcomes being expected and negative outcomes being unexpected.

36. Causal Attribution • Self-Serving Attributions Defensive attributions are explanations for behavior or outcomes that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality. Unrealistic optimism is a form of defensive attribution wherein people think that good things are more likely to happen to them than to their peers and that negative events are less likely to happen to them than to their peers.

37. Causal Attribution • Self-Serving Attributions One way we deal with tragic information about others is to make it seem like it could never happen to us. We do it through the belief in a just world, a form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people, and that good things happen to good people.

38. Chapter Outline IV. The Role of Culture in the Attribution Process

39. The Role of Culture • Culture and the Fundamental Attribution Error Individualist cultures socialize people to prefer dispositional attributions over situational ones. In comparison, collectivist (often Eastern) cultures emphasize group membership, interdependence, and conformity to group norms. Therefore, Westerners are more likely than Easterners are to commit the fundamental attribution error.

40. The Role of Culture • Culture and the Correspondence Bias The correspondence bias is the inclination to conclude that people’s behaviors match their personalities. Although the correspondence bias is prevalent across cultures, people from collectivist cultures are more likely than Westerners are to notice situational information and to use it to form situational attributions.

41. The Role of Culture • Culture and Other Attribution Biases Westerners are more prone to the self-serving bias than Easterners are. Defensive attributions, like the belief in a just world, are more prevalent in societies where extremes in wealth and poverty exist. And, the spotlight effect is more common among people in individualist cultures compared to those from collectivist cultures.

42. Chapter Outline V. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions?

43. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? • Under many circumstances we are not very accurate, especially compared to how accurate we think we are.

44. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? • Why Are Our Impressions of Others Sometimes Wrong? One reason is because of the mental shortcuts, for example the fundamental attribution error, we use in forming social judgments.

45. How accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? • Why Are Our Impressions of Others Sometimes Wrong? Another reason is because people may use faulty implicit personality theories to guide their inferences.

46. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? • Why Do Our Impressions Seem Accurate? One reason is that we often see people in only a limited number of situations and never have the opportunity to see that our impressions are wrong.

47. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? • Why Do Our Impressions Seem Accurate? A second reason is because people create self-fulfilling prophecies about others and treat them in ways that make their prophecies come true.

48. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? • Why Do Our Impressions Seem Accurate? A third reason we may not realize our impressions are wrong is if a lot of people agree on what a person is like -- even though they may all be incorrect.

49. Study Questions What are the most often used and diagnostic channels of nonverbal communication? What are other channels of nonverbal communication? What functions do nonverbal cues serve?

50. Study Questions What is the relationship between encoding and decoding? What are the six major emotional expressions that are universally encoded and decoded?