Theories of Practice: The Structural Frame

1. Theories of Practice:The Structural Frame MPA 8002 The Structure and Theory of Human Organization Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

2. Since the mid-19th century and throughout the Industrial Era, social scientists have made inquiry into the nature of human organizations. The overall endeavor has been to objectify and analyze those factors which constitute effective and efficient organizations.

3. The goal has been to characterize how effective and efficient organizations: • function well • achieve and surpass goals • survive and thrive in the environment • what competitors emulate

4. The rational and objective side of human organizations... The structural frame upholds the notion that organizations are judged primarily on and by the proper functioning of those elements which constitute good organization... …giving appropriate emphasis to the process integrating people and technology... …and enabling the organization to achieve its goals.

5. A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO The fundamental responsibility of managers and leaders is to clarify organizational goals, to attend to the relationship between structure and environment, and to develop a structure that is clear and appropriate to the goals, the task, and the environment. Without such a structure, people become unsure about what they are supposed to be doing. The result is confusion, frustration, and conflict. In an effective organization, individuals are clear about their responsibilities and their contribution. Policies, linkages, and lines of authority are well-defined. When an organization has the right structure and people understand it, the organization can achieve its goals and individuals can be effective in their roles.

6. MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO The job of managers and leaders is to focus on task, facts, and logic, not personality and emotions. Most “people” problems really stem from structural flaws rather than from flaws in individuals. Structural managers and leaders are not necessarily authoritarian and do not necessarily solve every problem by issuing orders (though that will sometimes be appropriate). Instead, they try to design and implement a process or structure appropriate to the problem and the circumstances. Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 355)

7. the structural frame

8. For the greater part of the 20th century, the assumptions and concepts of scientific management have informed most theories of practice.

9. One of the earliest precursors of scientific management... Max Weber • 19th century sociologist • hired by Frederick the Great to reorganize the Prussian army • conceived the “rationalized bureaucracy”

10. But, if Max Weber “rationalized” the bureaucracy… …Frederick Winslow Taylor “hyper-rationalized” the bureaucracy.

11. Frederick Winslow Taylor... • the “father” of scientific management • originally trained as a statistician • sought an objective, scientific mechanism to improve organizational functioning • conducted time and motion studies • to ascertain the “one best way” • in turn, this provided the basis for worker training, assessment, and improvement

12. In 1911, Taylor published his theory of practice, The Principles of Scientific Management... ...eventually, Taylor’s book became the standard textbook in management training in the North America and Europe.

13. The assumptions of scientific management... 1. organizations exist to achieve established goals and objectives 2. organizations work best when rationality prevails over personal preferences and external pressures 3. structures must be designed to fit an organization’s circumstances (including its goals, technology, and environment)

14. 4. organizations increase efficiency and enhance performance through specialization and division of labor 5. appropriate forms of coordination and control are essential to ensure that individuals and units work together although both are subordinate to organizational goals 6. problems and performance gaps arise from structural deficiencies and are best remedied through organizational restructuring

15. The Five Principles of Scientific Management... 1. shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager 2. use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing the work 3. select the best person to perform the job thus designed 4. train the worker to do the work efficiently 5. monitor worker performance

16. Although “common sense” by today’s standards... • Taylor’s principles were a fundamental assault upon traditional theories of practice • Taylor’s intention was to effect a “mental revolution” aimed at transforming how people looked at work, their lives, and their world

17. The mental revolution... • fixed division of labor reform: replaced: • craft guilds and trades where one worker completes an entire job

18. uniform rules govern job performance reform: replaced: • work dictated by the caprice, whim, fancy, or feeling of a superordinate

19. workers would possess technical qualifications reform: replaced: • patrimony, patronage, graft

20. the separation of person from office reform: replaced: • individual assertions, claims, tenure

21. a hierarchy of officers reform: replaced: • dictators, autocrats, monarchs

22. work as a “life-long” career in an organization reform: replaced: • work as a “trade” where workers seek employment wherever available

23. Taylor’s mental revolution also transformed managerial practice... • his principles focused attention upon the manager as a “social architect”

24. In practice episodes... • managers apply the principles and concepts of scientific management to resolve the fundamental dilemmas present in the workplace Although Taylor is oftentimes credited (or discredited) for rationalizing the workplace, he was the first to introduce the concept of “creativity” into the managerial process.

25. Management and leadership as creative “social architecture”... • integration: the manager devises a structure to conjoin people, process, and technology in the most efficient and effective way possible fundamental concepts: • division of labor: the manager designs an appropriate means of control to facilitate vertical and lateral integration • span of control: the manager organizes a system of supervision and accountability

26. The dilemmas confronting managers and leaders... integration differentiation vs.

27. overlaps gaps vs.

28. overload underuse vs.

29. lack of creativity lack of clarity vs.

30. excessive autonomy excessive interdependence vs.

31. too tight too loose vs.

32. over-centralization diffuse authority vs.

33. goal-bound goal-less vs.

34. unresponsiveness irresponsibility vs.

35. Scientific management... • focuses on the social context of work • specifies goals, roles, and relationships • encourages organizational efficiency and effectiveness In its inception, scientific management represented a fundamental reform of the workplace. But, as scientific management became an orthodox ideology governing practice episodes, some of its assumptions proved to be problematic.

36. “Taylorism” as scientific management came to be known... • dominated the training of managers and leaders for most of the 20th century • eventually became an ideology shaping how people viewed virtually every form of human organization, including for-profit business, not-for-profit social services (e.g., hospitals, municipal governments, schools), and even homes

37. Some recent kindred cousins of scientific management... • PERT Analysis (1960s) • Management By Objectives (1970s) • Total Quality Management (1980s) • Strategic Planning (1980s) • Organizational Re-Engineering (1990s)

38. But, the principles contain hidden assumptions... 1. shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager managers do all of the thinking related to the planning and design of work, leaving the workers with the task of implementation assumes:

39. 2. use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing the work managers design the worker’s task by specifying the precise way in which the work is to be done assumes:

40. 3. select the best person to perform the job thus designed job competencies and requirements can be explicitly detailed assumes:

41. 4. train the worker to do the work efficiently training is routinized, involving demonstration, practice, and drill assumes:

42. 5. monitor worker performance managers ensure that appropriate procedures are followed and that pre-determined results are achieved assumes:

43. The power of scientific management... structural elements: hierarchies division of labor policies span of control implies procedures rules integration assessment

44. …can improve organizational functioning... • the structure will support the work As these structural elements align people, process, and technology: • the organizational structure and workforce will complement one another • efficiency and effectiveness will create the circumstances for achieving the organization’s goals

45. …or can become an ideology... • the structure will remain impervious to challenge When the structural elements become more important than the people in the organization: • tensions between structure and people will mount • inefficiencies and ineffectiveness will contribute to organizational dysfunction • new management will re-establish control—or— the organization will flounder until it eventually dies in its environment

46. Managing and leading human organizations requires... • developing a comprehensive conception of the organization • What is its mission and vision? • What are its current strategies and goals? • What does its history say about the organization’s strengths and weaknesses? • What opportunities and threats are present?

47. critically examining existing structures and processes • How do things really work? • How did things come to be this way? • Gather factual data that support these matters. Do not rely on anecdotal information. • Rather than attempting to “reinvent the wheel,” how might elements of the present structure be used to foster organizational change?

48. designing an organizational structure that takes into account its history, experience, and preferred future: • formulate an organizational purpose that responds to an environmental demand, a perceived need, or an opportunity to be seized • mix expertise and generate healthy organizational tension by cross-fertilizing divisions • forge a common commitment to making “working” decisions for which members bear responsibility but, at the same time, are subject to re-assessment and change

49. Using scientific management... VISION MISSION the motivation a preferred future the opportunities what ought to be the challenges based upon factual data

50. VISION MISSION PURPOSE