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Chapter 4

Chapter 4. Understanding Performance. Module 4.1: Basic Model of Performance. Basic definitions Performance: Actions or behaviors Effectiveness: Evaluation of results of performance Productivity: Ratio of effectiveness (output) to cost of achieving that level of effectiveness (input).

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Chapter 4

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  1. Chapter 4 Understanding Performance

  2. Module 4.1: Basic Model of Performance • Basic definitions • Performance: Actions or behaviors • Effectiveness: Evaluation of results of performance • Productivity: Ratio of effectiveness (output) to cost of achieving that level of effectiveness (input)

  3. Campbell’s Model of Job Performance • 3 direct determinants of job performance • Declarative knowledge (DK) • Procedural knowledge & skill (PKS) • Motivation (M)

  4. Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance Figure 4.1 Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance Source: Based on Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993).

  5. Campbell’s Model (cont'd) • 8 basic performance components • 3 are essential for every job • Core task proficiency • Demonstrated effort • Maintenance of personal discipline

  6. Full Campbell Model Figure 4.2 The Full Campbell Model Source: Based on Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993).

  7. Criterion Deficiency & Contamination • Ultimate (theoretical) criterion • Ideal measure of all relevant aspects of job performance • Actual criterion • Actual measure of job performance obtained • Differences between ultimate criterion & actual criterion represent imperfections in measurement – contamination & deficiency

  8. Criterion Deficiency & Contamination (cont'd) • Criterion deficiency • When actual criterion is missing information that is part of behavior one is trying to measure • Criterion contamination • When actual criterion includes information unrelated to the behavior one is trying to measure

  9. Criterion Contamination, Deficiency, & Relevance Figure 4.3 Criterion Contamination, Deficiency, and Relevance

  10. Module 4.2: Extensions of the Basic Performance Model Task performance (Doing just what is expected) vs. Contextual performance (Going beyond what is expected) CORBIS

  11. Requirements vary from job to job Individual differences tied to abilities & knowledge Activities part of job description Common to most jobs Individual differences tied to personality Activities not part of job description Supports organizational environment Task Performance Contextual Performance

  12. Contextual Performance – 5 aspects • Persisting with enthusiasm & extra effort • Volunteering to carry out task activities not in job description • Helping & cooperating with others • Following organizational rules & procedures • Endorsing, supporting, & defending organizational objectives

  13. Contextual Performance (cont'd) • Increasing importance in today’s workplace • Global competition will require more effort from employees • Teams are more common now • Downsizing requires adaptability & extra effort • Customer service increasingly important

  14. Contextual Factors and Campbell’s Performance Components Figure 4.4

  15. Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) • Altruism • Helpful behaviors directed toward individuals or groups • Generalized compliance • Helpful behaviors directed toward the broader organization

  16. Types of Performance Measures • Objective performance measures • Quantitative count of the results of work • Judgmental measures • Evaluation of the effectiveness of an individual’s work • Personnel measures • Typically kept in personnel file (e.g., absences, accidents, rate of advancement)

  17. Adaptive Performance • Beneficial due to changing nature of work • Changing technologies alter work tasks • Mergers, downsizing, & corporate restructuring • Globalization & working in different cultures

  18. Adaptive Performance:8 Dimensions • Handling emergencies or crisis situations • Handling work stress • Solving problems creatively • Dealing with uncertain work situations • Learning work tasks, technologies, & procedures • Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability • Demonstrating cultural adaptability • Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability

  19. Expert Performance • Performance exhibited by those who have practiced for at least 10 years & have spent average of 4 hours/day in deliberate practice • Deliberate practice • Individualized training on tasks selected by a qualified teacher PhotoLink/Getty Images

  20. Constraints on Performance • Counterproductive employee behaviors • Voluntary behavior violating significant organizational norms & threatening organization, its members, or both • Interpersonal deviance • Organizational deviance

  21. Hierarchical Model of Deviance (Sackett & DeVore) Figure 4.5 Hierarchical Model of Deviance Source: Based on Sackett & Devore (2001).

  22. Common Counterproductive Behaviors • Dishonesty • Employee theft or dishonest communications • Absenteeism • Failure to report for or remain at work as scheduled • Sabotage • Acts that damage, disrupt, or subvert the organization’s operations

  23. Module 4.3: Job Analysis: Fundamental Properties & Practices • Job analysis • Process that determines “essence” of a collection of tasks falling within scope of particular job title Filename: 7055.JPG

  24. Uses of Job Analysis Information Performance assessment Job description Training Workforce reduction Selection Recruiting Criterion development Promotion Compensation

  25. Early Example of Job Analysis Figure 4.6

  26. Brief History of Job Analysis • 1922 – Viteles & job psychograph • Used in job analysis to display mental requirements of a job

  27. Viteles’ Job Psychograph Figure 4.7

  28. Types of Job Analysis Task-oriented job analysis • Begins with statement of actual tasks & what is accomplished by those tasks Worker-oriented job analysis • Focuses on attributes of the worker necessary to accomplish tasks

  29. KSAOs • Knowledge • Collection of discrete, related facts & information about a particular domain • Skill • Practiced act • Ability • Stable capacity to engage in a specific behavior • Other characteristics: interests, training, etc.

  30. Role of Job Analysis in Assessment Figure 4.8 The Role of Job Analysis in Assessment

  31. Potential distorting influences in JA • Need of subject matter expert (SME) to conform to what others report • Desire to make one’s job look more difficult • Attempts to provide answers that SME thinks job analyst wants • Carelessness

  32. How Job Analysis is Done • Observation • Interviews: Incumbent, Supervisor • Critical incidents & work diaries • Questionnaires/surveys

  33. Module 4.4: Job Analysis:Newer Developments • Electronic performance monitoring • Can be cost effective • Potential for providing detailed & accurate worklog • e.g., “This call may be monitored for quality control purposes.” Siede Preis/Getty Images

  34. Cognitive Task Analysis • Methods for decomposing job & task performance into discrete, measurable units with special emphasis on eliciting mental processes & knowledge content • Think-aloud protocol • Approach that investigates thought processes of experts who achieve high levels of performance

  35. Cognitive Task Analysis (cont'd) • Time consuming & requires a good deal of expertise to do well • Consider the following to determine whether cognitive task analysis may be worthwhile: • Persistent performance problems • Costly errors or accidents • Training difficult to transfer to job behavior • Takes a long time to achieve high levels of performance

  36. MAPS Representation Figure 4.9

  37. Context of Work • Conditions or characteristics of work that can change demands on the incumbent • Aspects of context • Interpersonal relationships • Physical work conditions • Structural job characteristics • Realistic job preview (RJP)

  38. New Addition to Job Analysis Instruments • Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) • Devoted to identifying personality predictors of job performance • Intended to supplement job analysis

  39. Sample Page from PPRF Figure 4.10

  40. Summary of Job Analysis Process • The more information gathered from the greatest number of sources, the better the job analyst can understand the job • Most job analyses should include considerations of personality demands & work context

  41. Occupational Information Network or O*NET • Introduced by federal government to replace the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) • Electronic medium, so it can be updated instantaneously as changes occur

  42. O*NET Data Bases Figure 4.12 Data Bases Forming the Foundation for O*NET Source: Mumford & Peterson (1999).

  43. Competency Modeling • Identifies characteristics desired across all individuals & jobs within an organization • Connects individuals with organizational viability & profitability • Natural extension of job analysis logic, rather than a replacement

  44. Module 4.5: Job Evaluation, Comparable Worth, & the Law • Job evaluation: Method for making internal pay decisions by comparing job titles to one another & determining their relative merit • Compensable factors • Skills, responsibility, effort, & working conditions • Equal Pay Act of 1963: requires “equal pay for equal work.”

  45. Comparable Worth • Notion that people who are performing jobs of comparable worth to an organization should receive comparable pay • In the end, comparable worth is concerned with the social value of fairness

  46. Job Analysis & Employment Litigation • Competent job analysis does not guarantee validity, but absence of credible job analysis could be very damaging • Growing gap between evolution of I-O psychology & Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978) • SIOP Principles (2003) are more updated and consistent with current research

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