CHAPTER 3 Persecution of “The Way”

1. CHAPTER 3Persecution Of “The Way”The complex and often troubling relationship between the Church and the State is one that began in the Roman Empire, and still remains with us today.

2. CHAPTER 3Persecution of “The Way” In the early Church those Christians who refused to renounce the Faith were martyred, often in public spectacles in places such as the Coliseum. Because the death of the martyrs had occurred there, many of the Roman circuses were held as sacred by Christians. When the circuses were dismantled, their material was used in the construction of Christian churches. The earliest Christians referred to the Faith as “the Way.” Living “the Way” required integrity and a strong commitment. Although living the Faith is always difficult, it was especially so for the early Christians.

3. CHAPTER 3Persecution of “The Way” Many thousands of Christians lost their lives during the first three hundred years of persecutions. Christianity is a religion born in the suffering and death of its founder, Jesus Christ. In like manner, many of his early followers suffered and died for their belief in him. The persecutions began with Nero AD 64 and climaxed with Diocletian AD 303. However, throughout this period, regardless of the persecutions, the Church continued to spread.

4. PART I The First Roman Persecutions The earliest Christians suffered persecution at the hands of the Jews. The Romans, at this time, simply saw them as a Jewish sect and were not bothered by them. However, as Christianity distanced itself from Judaism, the Roman Empire began to see them as enemies of the Empire, and systematic persecutions became a way of life for these early Christians.

5. THE FIRST PERSECUTION UNDER EMPEROR NERO (AD 64) The Emperor Nero was a figure of immense cruelty, psychological sickness, and paranoia. He murdered his mother, beheaded his wife, and forced his advisor and tutor, Seneca, to commit suicide. AD 64 a fire destroyed the city of Rome. Because Nero had announced his intention to seize private property in the center of Rome for his own use, a rumor began to circulate that he began the fire. Nero quickly acted to remove suspicion from himself by falsely accusing the Christians. Nero tortured many Christians, elicited false confessions, and arrested many others.

6. THE FIRST PERSECUTION UNDER EMPEROR NERO (AD 64) St. Clement (the third Pope) relates that Christians were taken across the Tiber to an arena on the Vatican Hill where they were sewn into animal skins. Hungry dogs were released, which hunted down and ate the trapped Christians. Other Christians were martyred in the Circus Maximus. Finally, Nero coated hundreds of live Christians with pitch and resin and set them on fire to provide light for him as he passed through the gardens and city streets at night. Nero was the first to declare Christianity illegal, and sought to punish all Christians with death. His persecution included the martyrdom of St. Peter.

7. PERSECUTION UNDER EMPEROR DOMITIAN, “LORD AND GOD” Domitian served as emperor beginning AD 81. As the years passed he became pathologically suspicious of conspirators against him. He was intent on stopping the spread of Christianity from the lower classes into the aristocracy, and even into his own family. He murdered his cousin, an office-holding Christian. Despite heavy taxes placed on Christians and Jews, growing numbers of Patricians began to convert to Christianity.

8. THE VOICE OF THE PEOPLE (Vox populi) The Roman people’s misunderstanding of Christian doctrine and practice often led to violent hatred and fear. Christians were denounced as atheists for refusing to sacrifice to the Roman gods. Christians were accused of sacrificing babies and drinking their blood, and of casting evil spells. Christians were also blamed for natural disasters. Angry crowds would loot and destroy churches, along with Christian cemeteries and homes. Christians served as scapegoats and were collectively tortured and killed to provide an outlet for people’s anger.

9. PART II“The Five Good Emperors” (AD 96-180) The five emperors that followed Domitian have been called the “The five good Emperors” because they enjoyed the support of the army, senate, and the people. They worked to secure the borders of the Roman Empire and to expand them. Although they were more moderate than Nero in their treatment of Christians, they by no means halted the persecution of Christians, which continued throughout their reigns.

10. TRAJAN’S RESCRIPT (AD 112) Trajan began to rule AD 98. Not only was Trajan an able military commander, defeating the Dacians, but he also treated the poor and abandoned children very humanely. He defeated the Parthians and extended the Empire to the Persian Gulf, but died while leading his army against a Jewish revolt AD 117. His expedition was the last major conquest made by the Roman Empire, and its borders remained stable and secure for the next 150 years. With respect to Christians, as evidenced by Trajan’s letter to his governor, Pliny, Christians were to be allowed to live as long as they renounced their faith and offered sacrifice to the gods. Furthermore, anonymous denunciations were not to be pursued. Trajan’s rescript left Christians with an awful choice: death or apostasy.

11. ST. IGNATIUS, BISHOP OF ANTIOCH St. Ignatius (AD 50–AD 107) was the third Bishop of Antioch and is thought to have known St. John the Evangelist. Having direct contact with the Apostles, he is considered an Apostolic Father. His letters are considered the most important documents linking the early church with the Apostles. He was arrested during the reign of Trajan, and on his way to Rome for trial, wrote Seven Epistles. His Epistles are explicit evidence of the development of the offices of bishop, priest, and deacon in the early church, the role of the Bishop, the belief of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and the primacy of the Bishop of Rome. He was the first to use the term “Catholic Church.”

12. HADRIAN’S RESCRIPT (AD 123/124) The Emperor Hadrian succeeded Trajan AD 117 and served until his death AD 138. He traveled extensively and fortified the frontiers of the Empire. He was responsible for building Hadrian’s wall in Scotland. He was a follower of Hellenism and interested in science, art, and philosophy. He promoted the Roman gods, banned Jewish circumcision, and planned to turn Jerusalem into a Roman colony called Aelia Capitolina. The Jews revolted, and as a result were forbidden to enter Jerusalem. In regard to Christians, the Emperor decreed that Christians could only be prosecuted for actually violating a law, not just for professing to be a Christian. He also punished false accusers. Under Hadrian, Christians enjoyed a relative amount of toleration.

13. ST. POLYCARP, BISHOP OF SMYRNA St. Polycarp (AD 69 - AD 155) suffered martyrdom during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius. St. Polycarp spent much of his life defending orthodox Catholic belief from various heresies. He is an important link between the Apostles and later second century writers. His martyrdom was recorded by an eyewitness in the Church of Smyrna. The governor wished to save St. Polycarp’s life, and asked him to curse Christ. St. Polycarp refused and was burned alive. Unharmed by the flames, he was killed with a sword.

14. EMPEROR MARCUS AURELIUS Marcus Aurelius (AD 121-180) was an ardent stoic and philosophy was the focus of his life. His book Meditations is a thoughtful and moving work that reflects the profound discipline of a Stoic’s life, living free from passion, unmoved by joy or grief, and submitting without complaint to unavoidable fate. Marcus Aurelius reinstated laws outlawing Christianity and persecuted Christians. He did not hesitate to kill Christians if it served the Empire’s interests, and permitted mob violence against Christians if it served as an outlet of popular anger, which otherwise might turn against the Empire itself.

15. ST. JUSTIN MARTYR St. Justin Martyr (AD 100-165) was one of the most famous martyrs to die under the persecutions of Marcus Aurelius. He had studied philosophy before converting to Christianity, and used his background in philosophy to become an excellent apologist for the Faith. He worked hard against the pagans who falsely accused the Church. In his First Apology, addressed to the Emperor Antoninus Pius, Justin provided important descriptions of the celebration of the Eucharist and Baptism. His Second Apology was addressed to the Roman Senate. Shortly afterwards he was arrested. Refusing to offer sacrifice to the gods, he was beheaded with six other Christians.

16. PART IIILater Persecutions and the Edict of Milan The reign of Emperor Septimus Severus (AD 193-211) was characterized by warfare in Britain and Mesopotamia. The military played an increasingly important role in selecting an Emperor. Severus passed a law prohibiting Baptism and circumcision, and another round of persecutions followed.

17. STS. PERPETUA AND FELICITY Two victims of Severus’ persecution were Sts. Perpetua and Felicity. St. Perpetua was a noblewoman who sought Christian instruction for herself and her household, and St. Felicity was a slave in that household. They, along with other catechumens, were arrested, and Sts. Perpetua and Felicity were forced to raise their children in prison. Perpetua’s father, a Roman governor, begged her to reject Christianity, but she refused. They were martyred in the main arena in Carthage along with the other catechumens. They were first scourged, then attacked by wild animals including leopards, bears, and wild boars. Finally, not yet dead, they were stabbed to death.

18. ST. IRENAEUS, BISHOP OF LYONS St. Irenaeus (AD 130–200) was a disciple of St. Polycarp. He served as bishop of Lyons and was a prominent figure in the early Church in Gaul. He spent much time combating heresies, especially Gnosticism. He defended key aspects of orthodoxy, including the episcopacy, Sacred Scripture, and Tradition. His writings are of special interest as they describe the origin of each heresy before contrasting it with orthodox Catholic teaching. He was bishop of Lyons for twenty-five years before being martyred during the reign of Emperor Septimus Severus.

19. THE EDICT OF DECIUS (AD 250) After the reign of Septimus Severus, Christians enjoyed a fifty year period of relative peace. Emperor Alexander Severus (AD 222–235) allowed Christians to own private property and to build churches. However, in the second half of the third century the empire suffered a difficult period, and there were eighteen emperors in forty-six years. Emperor Decius, who reigned for three years, beginning AD 249, began an empire-wide persecution of Christians. Seeking to strengthen the empire, he sought to destroy Christianity, which called for ultimate allegiance to Christ, not to the state.

20. THE EDICT OF DECIUS (AD 250) • All suspected Christians had to offer sacrifice to the gods or produce a certificate saying that they had done so. • Christians who offered sacrifice to the gods were known as sacrificanti. • Christians who burnt incense to the gods were known as thurificati. • Christians who bought a certificate saying that they had offered sacrifice were called libellatici. • Those refusing to renounce the Faith were exiled or executed, and their property confiscated.

21. APOSTASY St. Thomas Aquinas defined apostasyof perfidity as when a person withdraws from or gives up the Faith. This is different from heresy, in which a person denies one or more doctrines of the faith. The persecutions of Decius resulted in many apostates called lapsi, and the leaders of the Church had the difficult decision as to what to do with those who had renounced the Faith and then wished readmittance to the Church after the persecution had passed. The Roman presbyter Novatian taught that the lapsi could never be readmitted. This view eventually led to a schism. The Popes decided that the lapsi could be readmitted after undergoing a long penance.

22. ORIGEN: THEOLOGIAN AND BIBLICAL EXEGETE Origen (AD 185–254) was one of the most important theologians in the eastern part of the empire. He was Egyptian and spent much time working and teaching in Alexandria. Later, he became the head of the first Catechetical School in Alexandria. He came into conflict with his own bishop in Alexandria when as a layman, he preached a homily during a visit to Palestine, and was later ordained to the priesthood during a second visit to Palestine. His bishop stripped him of all teaching power as well as his faculties to exercise his priesthood.

23. ORIGEN: THEOLOGIAN AND BIBLICAL EXEGETE Origen moved to Caesarea where he founded a new Catechetical School. Arrested during the persecutions of Decius, he was brutally tortured, but refused to renounce the Faith and was eventually released. It is estimated that he wrote between two to five thousand tracts and is considered to have initiated the concept of the homily.

24. POPE ST. SIXTUS II AND DEACON ST. LAWRENCE Emperor Valerian issued a rescript AD 257 forbidding Christians from meeting in public places and from celebrating the Eucharist in the catacombs; and another in AD 258 calling for the arrest of all bishops, priests, and deacons. During this persecution, Pope St. Sixtus II was arrested while celebrating Mass, along with seven of his deacons. Pope St. Sixtus and six of his deacons were beheaded soon after, but St. Lawrence was spared for some time. When his captors demanded that he bring the Church’s treasure, St. Lawrence brought him a group of poor people and declared them to be the treasure of the Church. In response, he was sentenced to be roasted alive. Tradition holds that St. Lawrence told his executioners, “I am roasted enough on this side; turn me around.”

25. PERSECUTIONS UNDER DIOCLETIAN When the Roman emperor was murdered, the army made Diocletian the new emperor. Spending much of his early reign battling the barbarians, he was too busy to concern himself with the Christians. However, AD 303, with the barbarians defeated, he issued an edict beginning a great persecution. Churches were destroyed, books were burned, and Christians imprisoned, tortured, and martyred. These persecutions continued until the Edict of Milan AD 312.

26. THE TETRARCHY (AD 293) Diocletian divided the Empire into four administrative districts, each with its own Caesar. While retaining the ultimate authority for himself, he granted each Caesar considerable power in their own sphere. This effectively split the Roman Empire into two halves, Eastern and Western, and in doing so reduced the status of Rome and the Senate. He also created administrative units called dioceses. When Diocletian abdicated AD 305, the tetrarchy failed to function effectively with each competing for absolute supremacy.

27. FOUR EDICTS • The Four Edicts issued by Diocletian resulted in the worst persecutions that Christians had suffered under the Romans. • The First Edict: Commanded the destruction of churches, the burning of the Scriptures, and the banning of all Christian gatherings. • The Second Edict: Sanctioned the imprisonment of the clergy. • The Third Edict: Demanded pagan sacrifice from the clergy. • The Fourth Edict: Demanded pagan sacrifice from all Christians. • The Fourth Edict resulted in the deaths of thousands of Christians who refused to offer pagan sacrifice.

28. ST. AGNES: A CHILD MARTYR FOR CHRIST St. Agnes was martyred during the persecutions of Diocletian when she was only twelve or thirteen years old. She was a beautiful young woman who had many young men desiring her hand in marriage, but she decided to consecrate herself to Christ as a virgin. This so enraged her would be suitors that she was denounced before the Magistrate. She refused to renounce the Faith, even when tortured by fire, and eventually she was beheaded.

29. THE CHURCH TRIUMPHS AD 307 Constantine, upon the death of his father, took over control of the Western Roman Empire. He was friendly to Christians, although not one himself. Galerius, who ruled in the East, was stricken with leprosy. Believing it to be a punishment from God for his persecution of Christians, he allowed Christians the free exercise of religion as long as they prayed for him and obeyed the laws. This edict was also adopted in the West and finally, the last great persecution of Christians gave way to peace.

30. THE CHURCH TRIUMPHS With the death of Galerius, there ensued a struggle for the control of the Empire, and the two armies, those of Constantine and Maxentius, met at the Milvian Bridge. Before the battle Constantine claimed to have had a vision of a cross in the sky with the words “In this sign you shall conquer.” Believing this to be a sign from God, Constantine had his soldiers put this sign on their shields. Winning the battle against great odds, Constantine effectively secured his rule in the West. Declaring that the Christian God had favored him, he restored the property of the Church and began aiding in the construction of new churches.

31. THE EDICT OF MILAN (AD 313) The Edict of Milan restored all property taken from the Church and granted Christians the freedom to practice their religion. It finally legitimized a religion that had been outlawed since the time of Nero. Although there might have been some political motives for his support of Christianity, Constantine is known to have prayed daily and received instruction in the Faith. He received the Sacrament of Baptism on his deathbed.

32. ST. HELEN IN JERUSALEM Although converting later in life, St. Helen, mother of Constantine, was deeply devout and inspired many others. After her son became emperor, she made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. She was determined to find artifacts from Jesus’ life, and consulted locals about the legends and traditions regarding the sites relating to Christ. Legend has her finding Mount Calvary, Christ’s sepulcher, and the true Cross.

33. CONCLUSION The Church suffered through nearly three hundred years of persecution until emerging as an imperially sanctioned religion of the Roman Empire in AD 313. This period of the Church’s history has many lessons that are applicable for us today. The martyrs continue to inspire Christians, especially those who are undergoing persecution. The troubling relationship between Church and state is one that continues today. The structure of the episcopacy and the importance of Tradition for resolving theological disputes found expression in the teachings of the early Christian writers. An understanding of the early Christian theologians is essential for an adequately informed conception of the structure and doctrines of Christianity.

34. Supplemental MaterialAD METALLA One of the worst sentences a Christian could receive was “Ad Metalla” (to the metal mines). Unsanitary and dangerous conditions, inadequate and contaminated food, brutal guards, lack of air, and overcrowded living quarters, meant an eventual death sentence for those sent to the mines.

35. The End