Nuclear Weapons

1. Nuclear Weapons Sources: un.org/disarmament/ fas.org ctbto.org jfklibrary.gov nato.int defense.gov

2. Outline • Nuclear Free Zones • Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) • Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) • NATO Nuclear Posture • US Nuclear Posture

3. Nuclear-Free Zones

4. Guidelines and Principles for the Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones • The UN Disarmament Commission in its report of April 1999, recommended a set of principles and guidelines for the establishment of a nuclear-weapon-free zone, which included, inter alia: • Nuclear-weapon-free zones should be established on the basis of arrangements freely arrived at among the States of the region concerned • The initiative to establish a nuclear-weapon-free zone should emanate exclusively from States within the region concerned and be pursued by all States of that region

5. …guidelines • The nuclear-weapon States should be consulted during the negotiations of each treaty and its relevant protocol(s) establishing a nuclear-weapon-free zone in order to facilitate their signature to and ratification of the relevant protocol(s) to the treaty, through which they undertake legally binding commitments to the status of the zone and not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against States parties to the treaty

6. …guidelines • A nuclear-weapon-free zone should not prevent the use of nuclear science and technology for peaceful purposes and could also promote, if provided for in the treaties establishing such zones, bilateral, regional and international cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy in the zone, in support of socio-economic, scientific and technological development of the States parties

7. Treaties Involved in the Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones • Treaty of Tlatelolco — Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean • Treaty of Rarotonga — South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty • Treaty of Bangkok — Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone • Treaty of Pelindaba — African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty • Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Central Asia

8. …NFZ Treaties • Other treaties that also deal with the denuclearization of certain areas are: • Antarctic Treaty • Outer Space Treaty — Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies • Moon Agreement — Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies • Seabed Treaty — Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof

9. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) • Entered into force in March 1970, seeks to inhibit the spread of nuclear weapons • Its 190 states-parties are classified in two categories: • nuclear-weapon states (NWS)—consisting of the US, Russia, China, France, and the UK • non-nuclear-weapon states (NNWS) • Under the treaty, the five NWS commit to pursue general and complete disarmament, while the NNWS agree to forgo developing or acquiring nuclear weapons

10. …NPT • With its near-universal membership, the NPT has the widest adherence of any arms control agreement • Only India, Israel, and Pakistan remain outside the treaty • In order to accede to the treaty, these states must do so as NNWS, since the treaty restricts NWS status to nations that "manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967"

11. …NPT • For India, Israel, and Pakistan, all known to possess or suspected of having nuclear weapons, joining the treaty as NNWS would require that they dismantle their nuclear weapons and place their nuclear materials under international safeguards • South Africa followed this path to accession in 1991

12. …NPT • The provisions of the Treaty envisage a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years • This was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference • The 1995 Conference also decided that the Treaty should continue in force indefinitely

13. …NPT • To further the goal of non-proliferation and as a confidence-building measure between States parties, the Treaty establishes a safeguards system under the responsibility of the IAEA • Safeguards are used to verify compliance with the Treaty through inspections conducted by the IAEA • The Treaty promotes cooperation in the field of peaceful nuclear technology and equal access to this technology for all States parties, while safeguards prevent the diversion of fissile material for weapons use

14. …NPT • The 2010 Review Conference met at UN Headquarters in New York from 3 to 28 May 2010 • A total of 172 States parties to the Treaty participated • States parties agreed to a final document which included a review of the operation of the Treaty as well as agreed conclusions and recommendations for follow-on actions • The action plan contains measures to advance nuclear disarmament, nuclear non-proliferation and the peaceful uses of nuclear energy

15. Nuclear-Test-Ban A long, unfinished history • In May 1955, the United Nations Disarmament Commission brought together the US, UK, Canada, France, and the USSR to begin negotiations on ending nuclear weapons testing • Conflict soon arose over inspections to verify underground testing • The USSR feared that on-site inspections could lead to spying that might expose the Soviets' vastly exaggerated claims of the number of deliverable nuclear weapons • As negotiators struggled over differences, the USSR and the US suspended nuclear tests—a moratorium that lasted from Nov 1958 to Sept 1961

16. Test ban, the role of John F. Kennedy • John F. Kennedy had supported a ban on nuclear weapons testing since 1956 • He believed a ban would prevent other countries from obtaining nuclear weapons, and took a strong stand on the issue in the 1960 presidential campaign • Once elected, President Kennedy: • pledged not to resume testing in the air • promised to pursue all diplomatic efforts for a test ban treaty before resuming underground testing • envisioned the test ban as a first step to nuclear disarmament

17. …JFK-test ban • JFK met with Soviet Premier Khrushchev in Vienna in June 1961, just five weeks after the humiliating defeat of the US-sponsored invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs • Khrushchev took a hard line at the summit: • announced his intention to cut off Western access to Berlin • threatened war if the US or its allies tried to stop him • Many U.S. diplomats felt that JFK had not stood up to the Soviet Premier at the summit and left Khrushchev with the impression that he was a weak leader

18. …test ban • In August 1961, the USSR announced its intention to resume atmospheric testing • Over the next three months it conducted 31 nuclear tests • It exploded the largest nuclear bomb in history—58 megatons—4,000 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima • JFK pursued diplomatic efforts before allowing renewed testing by the US

19. …test ban • JFK address to the UN on Sept 25, 1961: • He challenged the USSR "not to an arms race, but to a peace race" • But JFK was unsuccessful in his efforts to reach a diplomatic agreement and announced the resumption of atmospheric testing • American testing resumed on April 1962

20. …test ban • After the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, JFK and Khrushchev realized that they had come dangerously close to nuclear war • Both leaders sought to reduce tensions between their two nations • In a series of private letters, Khrushchev and Kennedy reopened a dialogue on banning nuclear testing

21. …test ban • In his commencement address at American University on June 10, 1963, JFK announced a new round of high-level arms negotiations with the Russians • He called for an end to the Cold War • "If we cannot end our differences, at least we can help make the world a safe place for diversity" • The Soviet government broadcast a translation of the entire speech, and allowed it to be reprinted in the Soviet press

22. …test ban treaty • JFK selected Averell Harriman to resume negotiations in Moscow • An agreement to limit the scope of the test ban paved the way for a treaty • By excluding underground tests from the pact, negotiators eliminated the need for the on-site inspections that worried the Kremlin. • On July 25, 1963, after only 12 days of negotiations, the two nations agreed to ban testing in the atmosphere, in space, and underwater

23. Test ban Treaty • The next day, in a television address announcing the agreement, JFK claimed that a limited test ban “is safer by far for the United States than an unlimited nuclear arms race” • Over the next two months, President Kennedy convinced a fearful public and a divided Senate to support the treaty • The Senate approved the treaty on September 23, 1963, by an 80-19 margin. Kennedy signed the ratified treaty on October 7, 1963

24. 1963 Test ban treaty contents • Prohibited nuclear weapons tests or other nuclear explosions under water, in the atmosphere, or in outer space • Allowed underground nuclear tests as long as no radioactive debris falls outside the boundaries of the nation conducting the test • Pledged signatories to work towards complete disarmament, an end to the armaments race, and an end to the contamination of the environment by radioactive substances

25. Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) • The Conference on Disarmament (CD) began negotiations on a comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty in January 1994 within the framework of an Ad Hoc Committee (AHC) • AHC presented a final draft treaty to the CD in June 1996, 33 years after the limited test ban treaty

26. …CTBT • On 10 Sept. 1996, the General Assembly adopted the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty and requested the UN Secretary General to open it for signature at the earliest possible date • Signed by 71 nations (presently the signatories are 183), the treaty prohibited all nuclear test explosions including those conducted underground • Though it was signed by President Bill Clinton, the US Senate rejected the treaty by a vote of 51 to 48

27. …CTBT • CTBT has not yet entered into force • In accordance with Article XIV of the Treaty, it will enter into force after all 44 States listed in Annex 2 to the Treaty have signed it and ratified it • The following Article XIV states have not yet signed the treaty: Democratic People's Republic of Korea, India, Pakistan • The following Article XIV states have signed but not ratified the treaty: China, Egypt, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Israel, United States of America

28. …CTBT • Par. 2 of article XIV stipulates that if the Treaty has not entered into force three years after the date of the anniversary of its opening for signature, the Depositary shall convene a Conference of States that have already deposited their instruments of ratification upon the request of a majority of those States

29. …CTBT • The Conference shall examine the extent to which the requirements for entry-into-force of the Treaty has been met and shall consider and decide by consensus what measures consistent with international law may be undertaken to accelerate the ratification process in order to facilitate the entry-into-force of the Treaty • Seven such Conferences have been held (the latest in 2009)

30. Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (CTBTO) • CTBTO is an international organization established by the States Signatories to the Treaty in Nov. 1996 and has its headquarters in Vienna • The CTBTO’s main tasks are the promotion of the Treaty and the build-up of the verification regime so that it is operational when the Treaty enters into force • The annual budget is around US$120,000,000 or €82,000,000

31. NATO Nuclear Posture • In the Strategic Concept adopted by Allies at the Lisbon Summit at the end of 2010, NATO committed to the goal of creating the conditions for a world without nuclear weapons • The Strategic Concept also reconfirmed that, as long as there are nuclear weapons in the world, NATO will remain a nuclear Alliance • Deterrence, based on an appropriate mix of nuclear and conventional capabilities, remains a core element of NATO’s strategy

32. U.S. Nuclear Posture • In his April 2009 speech in Prague, President Obama highlighted 21st century nuclear dangers • He declared that to overcome these grave and growing threats, the United States will “seek the peace and security of a world without nuclear weapons” • He recognized that such an ambitious goal could not be reached quickly – perhaps, he said, not in his lifetime

33. …US Nuclear Posture • But the President expressed his determination to take concrete steps toward that goal, including by reducing the number of nuclear weapons and their role in U.S. national security strategy • At the same time, he pledged that as long as nuclear weapons exist, the United States will maintain a safe, secure, and effective arsenal, both to deter potential adversaries and to assure U.S. allies and other security partners that they can count on America’s security commitments

34. …US Nuclear Posture • The 2010 US Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) outlines the Administration’s approach to promoting the President’s agenda for • reducing nuclear dangers • pursuing the goal of a world without nuclear weapons

35. …US Nuclear Posture • NPR focuses on five key objectives of US nuclear weapons policies and posture: • 1. Preventing nuclear proliferation and nuclear terrorism; • 2. Reducing the role of US nuclear weapons in US national security strategy; • 3. Maintaining strategic deterrence and stability at reduced nuclear force levels; • 4. Strengthening regional deterrence and reassuring U.S. allies and partners • 5. Sustaining a safe, secure, and effective nuclear arsenal