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This piece explores the dual waves of European immigration to the United States, highlighting the socio-economic factors that spurred migration before and after 1880. It discusses the rapid urbanization seen in cities like Chicago, the emergence of electric streetcars, and the resulting suburban sprawl. The article also delves into labor movements, focusing on the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor, the struggle for an eight-hour workday, and the consequences of the Pullman Strike, including the societal shifts and hardships faced by immigrant and labor communities.
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American Urbanization Global Migration and Urban Explosion
Immigration from Europe • Two distinct waves of European immigration • Before 1880—from northern and western Europe • After 1880—from southern and eastern Europe • depression in southern Italy, persecution of Jews in eastern Europe, avoidance of Russian conscription
America’s Need for Cheap Labor • Between 1870 and 1900 industrialists drew on rural and migrant people for labor force • 11,000,000 moved into cities • Chicago, for example, grew from 100,000 in 1860 to +1,000,000 in 1890
Electric Street Car • Development of electric street car in 1880s led to urban congestion and suburban sprawl • Social segregation—those who could afford, moved to outskirts, poorest occupied city center
Calls for Immigration Restriction • Many Americans saw newcomers as uneducated, backward, uncouth • “blue-bloods” made unlikely alliance with organized labor to restrict immigration • Ethnic competition between older immigrants
Jacob Riis • How the Other Half Lives, documented the poverty, crowding and disease of New York City • Had America become a plutocracy? The wealthiest 1% owned more than half of the real and personal property in the country.
Knights of Labor • First mass organization of America’s working class • Organized regardless of skill, sex, race, or nationality, became the dominate force in labor during the 1880s • Knights of Labor advocated a workers’ democracy that embraced public ownership of railroads, an income tax, equal pay for women workers, and the abolition of child labor.
AFL rival to Knights of Labor • American Federation of Labor headed by Samuel Gompers • His plan was to organize skilled workers and to use strikes to gain immediate objectives—higher pay and better working conditions
12-Hour Day • Since 1840, labor had sought to end the industry standard12-hour work day, • Supporters set May 1,1886 as the date for a nationwide general strike in support of eight-hour day • All factions of labor movement participated in Chicago on May Day, ‘largest demonstration to date’ • 45,000 workers paraded peaceful down Michigan Ave in support of eight hour work day
Company town • 4,300 acres nine miles south of Chicago • Planned and built by George Pullman after the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 • Family could never own their home • Rents were 10-20 percent higher than nearby communities • Wages slashed five times in 1893, but rents stayed high • Stockholders continued to get 8% dividend
ARU • 90 % of the workers walked off the job • Pullman shut down the factory • Workers appealed to the American Railway Union (ARU), led by Eugene V. Debs • Beginning on Jun 29, 1894, the membership refused to handle any train that carried Pullman cars • Switchmen across the country would not work with the cars • By July 2, railways from New York to California were paralyzed by work stoppage
Crushing the strike • An injunction against Eugene Debs said he could not speak in public • When he did, he was arrested and put in jail • Later, Debs formed the Socialist Party, and became a candidate for the U.S. Presidency
