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Long-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory. Dr. Claudia J. Stanny EXP 4507 Memory & Cognition Spring 2009. Overview. Types of Long Term Memory Relation between encoding and retrieval Encoding processes and their consequences Retrieval strategies Autobiographical memory.

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Long-Term Memory

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  1. Long-Term Memory Dr. Claudia J. Stanny EXP 4507 Memory & Cognition Spring 2009

  2. Overview • Types of Long Term Memory • Relation between encoding and retrieval • Encoding processes and their consequences • Retrieval strategies • Autobiographical memory Claudia J. Stanny

  3. Long Term Memory: Ebbinghaus (1885) Long-term Retention Functions Claudia J. Stanny

  4. Types of Long Term Memory Claudia J. Stanny

  5. Distinctive Characteristics of LTM • Organization of information • Schemas • Capacity • Duration • Bahrick: permastore • Encoding – impact on retention • Retrieval mechanisms • Forgetting: availability versus accessablity Claudia J. Stanny

  6. Encoding Strategies: Levels of Processing • Craik & Lockhart (1972) • Orienting tasks assigned at study to induce different levels of processing • Shallow processing (physical features of stimuli) Does the word contain an E or a G? Is the word presented in capital or lower case letters? • Intermediate processing Write down a word that begins with the same sound. • Deep processing (semantic encoding) Rate words on your perception of their PLEASANTNESS (1 = UNPLEASANT 7 = PLEASANT) Claudia J. Stanny

  7. Recognition performance for words processed at different levels Data from EXP 3082 (2002) Claudia J. Stanny

  8. Variations on Deep Processing • What kinds of processing “count” as deep processing? • Distinctive encoding • Encoding differsor makes a stimulus stand out • Isolation effects; unique encodings • Elaborate encoding • Create a code that includes multiple aspects • Complex codes; many connections to other representations Claudia J. Stanny

  9. Self-Reference Effect • Processing task: • Does this word relate to you? • Recognition performance is as good as for a semantic processing task • Biggest improvement seen when participants think the word does apply to them (46%) than when it does not (34%) Claudia J. Stanny

  10. Generation EffectSlamecka & Graf (1978) • What is the effect of processing depth when you generate the code yourself versus when you have the coding given to you? • Read Condition • Shallow: SAVE – CAVE • Deep: SEA – OCEAN • Generate Condition • Shallow: SAVE – C____ (rhyme) CAVE • Deep: SEA – O_____ (synonym) OCEAN Claudia J. Stanny

  11. Encoding Specificity • Match between cues encoded at study and cues available during retrieval Claudia J. Stanny

  12. Emotion, Mood and Memory • Pollyanna Principle • Rate of forgetting for pleasant & unpleasant events • Mood-dependent congruence • Mood-dependent memory (encoding specificity) Claudia J. Stanny

  13. Retrieval from LTM • Types of Retention Tasks • Explicit Memory Tasks • Aware that memory is being used/tested • Subjective experience of intentional use of memory • Implicit Memory Tasks • Task is perceived as a problem-solving task or other cognitive challenge Claudia J. Stanny

  14. Comparing Memory Tasks Explicit Memory Tasks Implicit Memory Tasks Word completion task V__L__A__E Word stem completion task OC __ __ __ Repetition priming (RT tasks) Lexical decision task Anagram solving LVGEALI → _______ • Recall • Cued recall • Recognition tests • yes/no recognition • multiple choice tests Claudia J. Stanny

  15. Evidence for different types of LTM • Dissociation of performance on explicit and implicit memory tasks • Variables improve performance on explicit memory but do not influence implicit memory performance • Depth of processing • Variables improve implicit memory performance but do not influence explicit memory • Benefits of number of repetitions • Note: some variables have the same effect on both types of task (proactive interference) Claudia J. Stanny

  16. Effect of LOP on performance on an implicit and an explicit memory task • Shallow processing task • Does the word have a B or a P? • Deep processing task • Rate the word on its pleasantness (1 – 7) • Implicit memory test • Anagram task • Explicit memory test • Free recall Data: EXP 4507L Spring 2006 Claudia J. Stanny

  17. Amnesia • Differences in performance by amnesiacs on implicit and explicit memory tasks Claudia J. Stanny

  18. How do experts differ from novices? • Amount of knowledge in area of expertise • Quality of organization of information in LTM • More efficient encoding of new information • More successful retrieval of information • Differences in cognitive strategies used • Chunking and organization of new material • Identifying distinctive characteristics of stimuli • Procedures used to solve problems • Better metacognition about processing • Judgments about task difficulty • Monitoring progress on a problem Claudia J. Stanny

  19. Expertise is Context-Specific • Expertise emerges from extensive deliberate practice in a particular domain • 10 years of deliberate practice required (Ericsson, 2003) • Expertise in one domain does not make one an expert in every domain • Superior memory performance in one area of expertise does not generalize to superior memory performance in general • Problem identification and efficient solution is also domain-specific Claudia J. Stanny

  20. Autobiographical Memory • Special case of episodic memory • Memory for events of our personal life • Interaction with semantic memory: • Role of schemas in autobiographical recall • Consistency bias • Source monitoring • Identifying the origin of a memory or belief Claudia J. Stanny

  21. Recall of autobiographical memories across the life span (Rubin, 1997) Reminiscence Bump Forgetting Function Infantile Amnesia Claudia J. Stanny

  22. Flashbulb Memories • Highly detailed episodic memories of an event • Contain many autobiographical details • Source information for the news of the event • Detailed contextual information Where you were, what you were doing, who you talked to, what your emotional response was, etc. • Are flashbulb memories special? • Do they include errors seen in other memories? • Are they subject to forgetting like other memories? Claudia J. Stanny

  23. Eyewitness Memory • Estimator Variables • Characteristics of the witness or witnessed event known to have an influence on accuracy of witness recollections • System Variables • Characteristics of the legal / investigative process known to have an influence on accuracy of witness recollections • Variables that produce memory distortions • Misleading questioning • Post-Information effects Claudia J. Stanny

  24. Factors that influence the accuracy of eyewitness memory • Delays between the event and recall • Intrusions related to misinformation • Reconstructive nature of memory Schema-based intrusions • Social pressure Demand characteristics of questioning the encourage production of more information or a specific answer • Positive feedback following identifications during lineups increases confidence without increasing accuracy Claudia J. Stanny

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