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Memory

Memory. Short-Term Memory & Working Memory. THE MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY. Sensory store Holds sensory information for a very brief time Information not attended to is lost Short-term memory (STM) Holds information for limited time 7-9 items capacity

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Memory

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  1. Memory Short-Term Memory & Working Memory

  2. THE MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY • Sensory store • Holds sensory information for a very brief time • Information not attended to is lost • Short-term memory (STM) • Holds information for limited time • 7-9 items capacity • Information not rehearsed is displaced • Once rehearsed information is transfered to LTM • Long-term memory (LTM) • Permenant memory store • Unlimited

  3. ATKINSON & SHIFFIN MODEL

  4. SENSORY MEMORY • Iconic store • Visual information is stored • Echoic store • Auditory information is stored

  5. SHORT-TERM STORE • Example: Trying to remember a telephone number • Limited capacity and fragile storage • Any distraction causes forgetting • The recency effect: • Last few items in a list are better remembered that the first or middle words • The primacy effect: • First few words remembered better than the middle words

  6. SHORT-TERM STORE-Duration • Peterson and Peterson (1959) • Task of remembering three letters while counting backwards by threes. • The ability to remember the three letters declined to 50% after 6 seconds • This indicates that information is lost from short-term memory rapidly. • This may be because counting backwards results in interference or diverts attention away from STM.

  7. SHORT-TERM STORE: Rehearsal • Rehearsal maintains information in short-term memory. • Words that are shorter and can be rehearsed rapidly should remain in STM • Words that take longer to reheasre will decay from STM. • Some evidence supports this while others do not. • Studies which do not support it cast doubt on the fact that short-term memory depends on rehearsal.

  8. SHORT-TERM STORE: Forgetting • Forgetting from STM: • Decay • Proactive Interference (disruption of current learning by previous learnt material) • Example: Trying to study cognitive psychology after studying for neuropsychology. • Neuropsychology inteferes with cognitive psychology learning

  9. WORKING MEMORY • Baddeley and Hitch (1974) and Baddeley (1986) • Central Executive • Resembles attention • Controlling unit • Limited capacity • Phonological Loop • Stores speech-based information • Visuo-spatial sketchpad • Stores visual-based information • Episodic buffer • Integrates information from the Visuo-spatial sketchpad and Phonological loop. Controlled by the Central Executive

  10. WORKING MEMORY

  11. WORKING MEMORY

  12. WORKING MEMORY: Assumptions • If two tasks use the same componet, they cannot be performed successfully together. • If two tasks use different components, it should be possible to perform them well together.

  13. WORKING MEMORYPHONOLOGICAL LOOP • Phonological Similarity Effect • Recall of words is better when words sound different than when they sound the same. • Example: Recall is better for words such as UP and ODD, than HE and KNEE • Speech based reherasal within the phonological loop

  14. WORKING MEMORYPHONOLOGICAL LOOP • Word Length Effect • Better recall of shorter words than longer words • Takes longer time to rehearse the longer words which causes greater levels of decay.

  15. WORKING MEMORYPHONOLOGICAL LOOP • a) A passive phonological store directly concerned with speech production • Auditory presentation of words gain direct access to the phonological store • b) An articulatory process linked to speech production that gives access to the phonological loop • Words presented visually need to be articulated then gain access to the phonological store – access is therefore indirect • Word length effect therefore is dependent on articulatory rehearsal

  16. PHONOLOGICAL LOOP

  17. VISUO-SPATIAL SKETCHPAD • Temporary storage and manipulation of spatial and visual information • Two components: • The visual cache • Stores information about visual form and colour • The inner scribe • Deals wıth spatial and movement information • Rehearses information in the visual cache • Tranfers information from the visual cache to the central executive • Involved in the planning and execution of body and limb movements

  18. CENTRAL EXECUTIVE • Most important component of working memory • Damage to the frontal lobes can cause impairements to the central executive • Functions: • Switching attention between tasks • Planning subgoals to achieve goals • Selective attention and inhibition • Updating and checking the contents of working memory • Coding representations in working memory for time and place of appearance

  19. CENTRAL EXECUTIVE • Single or multiple central executive functions? • Evidence favours the latter • Three central executive functions • Shifting attention • Updating information • Response inhibition • All share common processes (e.g., attention) but also function independently.

  20. EPISODIC BUFFER • Stores and intergrates information from both the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad

  21. MEMORY PROCESSES • Encoding • Storage • Retrieval

  22. TESTS OF MEMORY • Free recall • Hardest type of recall • Least environmental support • Cued recall • Second hardest type of recall • Provides some environmental support • Recognition • Easiest type of recall • Memory best under recognition • Provides environmental support

  23. TEST OF MEMORY • Explicit Memory • Conscious and deliberate retrieval of past events • Exam • Implicit Memory • Memory not involving consious recollection • Word stem completion • Complete the word ‘Ten___’

  24. LEVELS OF PROCESSING • Craik and Lockhart (1972) • Attentional processes at learning determine what information is stored in long-term memory • Various levels of processing • Shallow processing • Physical analysis of stimuli • Deep or semantic processing • Analysis of meaning • Deep or semantic processing produce more elaboration, longer lasting and stronger memory traces than shallow processing

  25. LEVELS OF PROCESSING • Two types of rehearsal • Maintenance rehearsal • Repeating information to remember it • Elaborative rehearsal • Involves semantic-meaning processing • Information which is sematically processed will be trasnfered to long term memory

  26. ELABORATION • Craik and Tulving (1975) • Elaboration of processing is important • Aids LTM • The kind and amount of elaboration is critical for recall • Precise semantic encodings are better

  27. DISTINCTIVENESS • Eysenck (1979) • Distinctive or unique memory traces are recalled more than non distinctive memory traces

  28. THEORIES OF FORGETTING • Ebbinghause studied forgetting with himself being the only participant. • He learned and recalled a list of nonsense syllables which had no meaning over several trials. • Forgetting was very rapaid over the first hour after learning which slowed down thereafter.

  29. REPRESSION • Freud argued that anxiety provoking material is often unable to gain access to conscious awareness, known as repression. • Adaptive function to maintain psychological well-being

  30. INTERFERENCE THEORY • Dominant approach • Ability to remember currently learned information can be disrupted with previously learnt material or what we learn in the future. • Proactive Interference • Previous learning interferes • Retroactive Interference • Later learning disrupts earlier learning

  31. CUE-DEPENDENT FORGETTING • Tulving (1974)-two reasons for forgetting • Trace-Dependent Forgetting • Information is no longer stored in memory • Cue-Dependent Forgetting • Information is stored in memory but cannot be accessed • Cue-dependent forgetting associated with external cues (categories) and internal cues (mood) • If the mood of retrieval is different from learning information will be blocked • The mood effect is stronger for positive than negative moods and for personal events

  32. CONSOLIDATION • Is a process lasting for several hours or even days which fixes information in LTM. • ‘New memories are clear but fragile and old ones are faded but robust’ (Wixted, 2004, p.265). • Consolidation process for one memory can be distrupted by other memories, so better consolidation will take place during sleep than awake coz fewer memories are being formed.

  33. CONSOLIDATION • Sleep will aid the consolidation period early in the retention interval, as, thats when memories are vulnerable to disruption. • Those who slept after learning remembered 81% than those who slept later 66%

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