General Aspects of Animal Nutrition

General Aspects of Animal Nutrition Park, Duk Sub, Ph.D.

Composition of Feedstuffs

1. The Evaluation of Feed Quality 1) Visual Evaluation : Spoiled?, Wet?, Proper color?, Adulterated? • Smell • Observation by microscope • Color • Physical characteristics • Particle size • Foreign material

2. Laboratory analysis • Chemical : Proximate analysis, Trace elements (vitamin, mineral) • Heavy metal, Toxins, Anti-nutritive factors, • Acid value, Peroxide value, Pepsin digestibility, • KOH solubility, Gelatinization degree, etc. • Physical : Specific gravity, Mixograph, Sieving test, • Mixability.

Table 1. Relationship between proximate analysis and the required nutrients and their functions. (To be continued)

Table 1. Relationship between proximate analysis and the required nutrients and their functions.

Table 2. Components of different fractions in the proximate analysis of foods

Table 3. Classification of forage fractions using the detergent methods of Van Soest (After P. J. Van Soest, 1967. J. Anim. Sci, 26, 119)

Digestive Processes in Different Species

Table 4. Approximate Capacity of the Digestive Tracts of Certain Animals (volume in liters)a a These data were selected from various sources to represent physiological fill.

Table 5. Primary Enzymes of the Digestive Tract

Table 6. Percentage Composition of the Animal Bodya a Less contents of digestive tract. (Animal Nutrition, 7th Ed. by Leonard A. Maynard. 1979: p. 10)

Table 7. Digestibility of Alfalfa Hay by Certain Animals a Total digestible nutrients (Animal Nutrition, 7th Ed. by Leonard A. May nard. 1979)

Table 8. Apparent Digestibility of the Same Diet by Several Animal Species Source: E. W. Crampton and coworkers. The apparent digestibility of essentially similar diets by rats, guinea pigs, sheep, swine and by human subjects, J. Nutrition, 43:541-550, 1951.

Table 9. Influence of Level of Intake on Digestibility of Rations by Dairy Cows a Times maintenance TDN. Source: D. G. Wagner and J. K. Loosli, Studies on the energy requirements of high producing dairy cows, Cornell University Agr. Expt. Sta. Memoir 400:1-40, 1967.

Table 10. Efficiency of Converting Animal Feeds into Human Foods (Animal Nutrition, 7th Ed. By Leonard A. Maynard, 1979 : p. 4)

Classification of Nutrients

Carbohydrate • C, H, O, N, P, S (CH2O)n, except deoxyribose (C5H10O4) • Polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, alcohols or acids, • their simple derivatives and any compound that may be • hydrolysed to these. • Sugar : Less than 10 monosaccharide residues. • Non sugar : Polysaccharide (glycan), complex carbohydrate

Table 11. Classification of carbohydrates Trioses C3H6O3 Tetroses C4H8O4 Pentoses C5H10O5 Hexoses C6H12O6 Heptoses C7H14O7 Disaccharides Trisaccharides Tetrasaccharides Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone Erythrose Arabinose Xylose Xylulose Ribose Ribulose Glucose Galactose Mannose Fructose Sedoheptulose Sucrose Lactose Maltose Cellobiose Raffinose Kestose Stachyose Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides SUGARS (To be continued)

Table 11. Classification of carbohydrates Arabinans Xylans Glucans Fructans Galactans Mannans Glucosamines Homoglycans Heteroglycans Glycolipids Glycoproteins Starch Dextrins Glycogen Cellulose Inulin Levan Pectic substances Hemicelluloses Exudate gums Acidic mucilages Hyaluronic acid Chondroitin Polysaccharides (glycan, >10 Glucose unit.) Complex carbohydrates NON- SUGARS

Cell contents sugars proteins Cellulose (20-40%) Lumen Secondary wall Primary wall Middle lamella Pectin (1-10%) Hemicellulose (10-40%) Lignin (5-10%) Protein Figure 1. Schematic representation of the structure of a forage plant cell showing the component layers. The relative amounts of each of the carbohydrate fractions in the respective layers are depicted by the shaded areas, e.g., hemicellulose largely in the secondary wall; pectin largely in the middle lamella. The figures in parentheses are amounts often found in forage dry matter.

Feed sample Boiled with Na lauryl sulfate, neutral detergent sodium EDTA pH 7.0 Neutral detergent fiber (NDF)Neutral detergent solubles (Plant cell wall) (Cell contents + pectin) Hemicellulose Soluble carbohydrate Cellulose Starch Lignin Organic acids Protein Pectin Boiled with acid detergent (acetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide in 1 N H2SO4) pH O Acid detergent fiber(ADF)Acid detergent solubles Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin KMnO4 72% H2SO4 pH 3.0 Cellulose + some Lignin lost by oxidation Lignin + Cellulose mineral residue minerals dissolved 550℃ 530℃ Ash Cellulose lost by ignition Ash Lignin lost by ignition Figure 2. The Van Soest method of partitioning fiber in feeds. (Source: H. K. Goering and P.J. Van Soest. Forage Fiber Analysis. Agr. Handbook No. 379., A.R.S., U.S.D.A., 1975)

Lipids Fatty acids + = Tryglyceride Glycerol

Table 12. Classification of lipids Lipids Glycerol based (saponicable) Non-glycerol based (non-saponicable) Simple Compound Glycolipids Phosphoglycerides Fats Glucolipids Galactolipids Lecithins Cephalins Waxes Sphingomyelins Cerebrosides Waxes Steroids Terpenes Prostaglandins

Table 13. Fatty Acids Commonly Found in Lipids a C4:0; four carbon atoms; 0 double bonds. b Denotes that the fatty acid has one double bond which starts at the ninth carbon atom beginning with the carboxyl carbon. c A designation used for unsaturated fatty acids. The ω denotes the first carbon atom of the double bond counting from the terminal methyl. Similar ω positions group unsaturated fatty acids into families and indicate, for example, C20:4ω6 was synthesized from C18:2ω6.

Linoleic acid (C18:2) ω6 Δ9 CH3(CH2)4 - CH = CH - CH2 - CH = CH - (CH2)7 - COOH Linolenic acid (C18:3) Δ9 ω3 CH3 - CH2 - CH3 = CH - CH2 - CH = CH - CH2 - CH = CH - (CH2)7 - COOH

Protein Composition of Protein, % ◇ Carbon : 51.0 ~ 55.0 ◇ Hydrogen : 6.5 ~ 7.3 ◇ Nitrogen : 15.5 ~ 18.0 ◇ Oxygen : 21.5 ~ 23.5 ◇ Sulfur : 0.5 ~ 2.0 ◇ Phosphorus : 0.0 ~ 1.5

Protein • Polymer of amino acids • ▶ Amino acids - hydrolytic end products • - end products of protein digestion • - 20 ~ 22 different amino acids • - derivatives of the short-chain fatty acids • and contain a basic amino group (-NH2) • and an acidic carboxyl group (-COOH)

Essential Amino Acids • Lysine • Threonine • Histidine • Phenylalanine • Leucine • Isoleucine • Tryptophan • Methionine • Valine • Arginine

Classification of Protein ▶ Simple proteins : Yield only amino acids ▶ Conjugated proteins : Simple proteins combined with nonprotein radical (prosthetic group) - nucleoproteins (RNA) - phosphoproteins (casein) - metalloproteins (cytochrome oxidase) - lipoproteins (VLDL) - flavoproteins (succinic dehydrogenase) - glycoproteins (γ-globulin)

Nonprotein Nitrogen Compounds (NPN) ◈ Not amino acids joined by a peptide bond - Urea - Biuret (2x urea) - Uric acid - Ammoniated products

Vitamins ▣ Required by animals in very small amounts compared with other nutrients ▣ Destroyed by oxidation, heat, light and certain metals such as iron. ▣ At least 15 vitamins as essential food factors. ▣ Some are synthesized in the digestive tract and skin. ▣ Available for immediate use. ▣ Essential for tissue integrity, normal function of body, reproduction and maintain health.

Table 14. Vitamins in animal nutrition * A number of tocopherols have vitamin E activity. † Several naphthoquinone derivatives possessing vitamin K activity are known.

Fat soluble vitamins ▶ Fat soluble but not dissolve in water. ▶ Presence of fat in the feed is essential for their absorption from the intestines. ▶ Digestion of fat requires bile salts. ▶ Absorbed into the lymphatic system and then transferred to the blood circulation for utilization in the body. ▶ Some are stored in organ like liver or in tissues through the body.

Water soluble vitamins ▶ Absorbed from the intestines direct into the blood circulation. ▶ Distributed to all body tissues and present in minute quantities in every cell. ▶ Not stored in any of the tissues or in any body organ in appreciable amounts. ▶ Any excess intake to the requirement is excreted rapidly. ▶ Some may be synthesized in the intestines by bacteria, but may or may not be absorbed. ▶ Need daily requirements in feed.

Functions of vitamins ▶ Participate with enzymes in chemical reactions and act as catalyst in the metabolism of nutrients. ▶ Without vitamins metabolic process cannot proceed. ▶ Needed for cellular functions. ▶ A single vitamin may influence a number of physiological functions.

Stress factors for vitamins • Humidity - pH • Pressure (pelleting) - Carriers • Heat - Enzymes • Light - Feed additives • Oxidation-reduction - Interaction with • Rancidity other vitamins • Trace minerals eg. choline chloride 2008 DSM POULTRY SEMINAR (Mar.06th)

Vitamin stability at different pelleting temperatures • Vitamins 77˚C 93˚C • K ( menadione ) 55-60 35-40 • Thiamin HCL 90-100 70-90 • Pyridoxine 90-100 80-90 • Vitamin B12 90-100 80-90 • Folic acid 90-100 70-80 • Vitamin C 50-80 20-40 • Estimates based on 20-30 second conditioning time (Ward.2005) 2008 DSM POULTRY SEMINAR (Mar.06th)

Vitamin variability and insufficient analysis ▶ Lack of vitamin information ▶ 2-30 % of ingredients lacked niacin, riboflavin or P.A ▶ 89 % - 97 % lacked carotene ,vitamin B12 or vitamin K ▶ Very large variation in vitamin concentration in feeds. ▶Accuracy of vitamin analysis ,method of analysis more difficult 2008 DSM POULTRY SEMINAR (Mar.06th)

Vitamin Bioavailability ▶Choline : 100 % in corn, 60 %-75 % in SBM ▶Niacin : 100 % in SBM, 0-30 % in wheat ,sorghum and particularly corn ▶ Pyridoxine :65 % in SBM, 45-56 % in corn ▶ Biotin : 100 % in alfalfa ,corn ,CSM and SBM 0-60 % in barley, fishmeal sorghum ,oat and wheat 2008 DSM POULTRY SEMINAR (Mar.06th)

Vitamin Antagonists ▶Thiaminase => Thiamine ▶Avidin => Biotin ▶Dicumarol => Vitamin K ▶ Rancid fats => A, D, E Biotin 2008 DSM POULTRY SEMINAR (Mar.06th)

Minerals ◎ Inorganic matter in animal body at the rate of 2~5%. ◎ Essential elements to maintain life of animals. ◎ Macro elements (60~80%) : Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg. ◎ Micro elements (Not greater than 50mg/kg body weight) : Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, Se, I, Mn, Co, F, As : Toxic (Cu, Se, F, Mo, As) ◎ Ca, P : Over 70% of the ash of the body.

General functions of minerals ◈ Constituents of the bones and teeth : rigidity and strength ◈ Constituents of the organic compounds : muscle, organ, blood cells. ◈ Important in the activation of many enzymes. ◈ Soluble salts in the blood and body fluids (osmotic relations and acid-base equilibrium) ◈ Many of their vital functions are due to an ionic interrelationship, antagonistic action and balanced solution.

Table 15. Analyses of Calcium and Phosphorus Supplements

Energy ◈ The potential energy present in feedstuff (Gross Energy) : depends on the chemical composition. - Carbohydrates, 1g : 4.2 kcal (1 kcal = 4.184 k joule) - Protein, 1g : 5.5 kcal - Fat, 1g : 9.5 kcal - Water, 1g : 0 kcal

Production (NEp) a. Tissue growth, fat, feathers, etc. b. Stored in products (milk) (NEl) c. Work Maintenance (NEm) a. Basal metabolism b. Activity at maintenance c. Sustaining body temperature Energy wasted as heat Gross energy (GE) Net energy (NEp+NEm) Heat increment energy (HI) a. Heat of digestive fermentations and action b. Heat of nutrient metabolism (exergonic) Lost via bowels or belching Metabolizable energy (ME) Urinary energy losses a. Residues of imperfect food nutrient metabolism (largely N compounds) b. Endogenous catabolism (largely creatinine) (UE) Gaseous energy losses a. gaseous products of fermentation (CH4) Digestible energy (DE) Fecal energy (FE) a. Undigested feed residues b. Metabolic products mucosa bacteria enzymes Figure 3. Energy distribution in body processes.

Table 16. Gross Energy Values, or Heats of Combustion (dry-matter basis)

Table 17. Relative Composition of Representative Proteins, Fats, and Carbohydrates (in percent) * The burning of 1g of hydrogen produces over 4 times as much heat (34.5 kcal/g) as is the case for carbon (8kcal/g).

TDN (Total Digestible Nutrients) gr TDN/kg Feed = (1 × gr.DCP) + (2.25 × gr.DEE) + (1 × gr.DCF) + (1 × gr.DNFE) where, DCP : Digestible Crude Protein DEE : Digestible Ether Extracts DCF : Digestible Crude Fiber DNFE : Digestible Nitrogen Free Extracts ◈ kg TDN × 4400 kcal = kcal DE (for the same species)

General Aspects of Animal Nutrition

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