Memory

1. Memory

2. The Memory Process Three step process…. • Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. • Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. • Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

3. Three Box Model of Memory Haptic memory – tactile sensations (1.3 secs)

4. Info-Processing • Brain processes many things at different levels at the same time • Automatic (not conscious) • Remembering space, time, frequency, well-learned info • i.e. driving slowly down a street (automatic) while looking for an address (conscious) • Effortful (conscious) • Rehearsal/repetition • Must consciously attend to/ • think about

5. Ebbinghaus • Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables • TUV ZOF GEK WAV • the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 = RELEARNING EFFECT

6. Spacing Effect • DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!! • Distributed practice is better than massed practice for enhanced memory • Overlearning = continuing to rehearse even after learned does enhance later memory

7. Encoding Information • Primacy Effect • Items @ beginning of list • Recency Effect • Items @ end of list = Serial Positioning Effect (more likely to remember items at the beginning & end of list (less likely to remember items in middle of list)

8. The ways we can encode… • Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. • Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. • Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning (such as the meaning of words).

9. Encoding – Techniques for Memory • Imagery (technique for visual encoding) • mental pictures • a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding • Mnemonics • memory aids • especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

10. Encoding • Chunking • organizing items into familiar, manageable units • like horizontal organization--1776149218121941 • often occurs automatically • use of acronyms • HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior • ARITHMETIC--ARat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

11. Encoding: Chunking • Organized information is more easily recalled in groups

12. Peg-Word System • One is a bun • Two is a shoe • Three is a tree • Four is a door • Five is a hive • Six is sticks • Seven is heaven • Eight is a gate • Nine is swine • Ten is a hen

13. Method of Loci – Uses your cognitive map!!

14. Method of Loci – Uses your cognitive map!! • Honey • Dog food • Sugar • Oranges • Ice cream • Peanut butter • Bread • Pork chops • Milk • Potato chips

15. Three Box Model of Memory Haptic memory – tactile sensations (1.3 secs)

16. Storage: Sensory Memory • Iconic memory • Brief sensory memory of images (tenths of a second) • Echoic memory • Brief sensory memory of sounds (2-4 secs) • Haptic memory • Memory for touch/tactile sensations

17. Percentage who recalled consonants 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) Storage: Short-Term (STM)/Working Memory • Limited duration & capacity • Magical number (7+/-2 items) • Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically. • We recall digits better than letters.

18. Storage: Long-Term Memory (LTM) • How does storage work? • Engrams (physical traces of memory) • Karl Lashley (1950) • Memories must be stored throughout the brain (no single place) • Synaptic changes • Long-term Potentiation • Biological evidence of memory • increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

19. Retrospective Memory Prospective Memory Memory for things that will happen in the future (i.e. I have a dentist appt. tomorrow at 3, next week is my sister’s birthday, etc.) • Memory of the past (i.e. remembering your first day of school, remembering the Homecoming dance, etc.)

20. Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Dispositions- classical and operant conditioning effects Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Skills-motor and cognitive Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems

22. Storage: Long-Term Memory (LTM) • Strong emotions make for stronger memories = FLASHBULB MEMORIES • Mood-dependent memory  we remember info in same mood as when it was encoded/learned • State-dependent memory  remember when in same conscious state as learned/ rehearsed

23. Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ land Land/ water Water/ water Land/ land Different contexts for hearing and recall Same contexts for hearing and recall Retrieval: Context Effects/Context-Dependent Memory • Godden and Baddeley (1975)

24. Retrieval • Recall v. Recognition tasks • Priming - activation of unconscious associations in memory (déjà vu)

25. Mood-dependent memory  we remember info in same mood as when it was encoded/learned • State-dependent memory  remember when in same conscious state as learned/rehearsed

26. Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ land Land/ water Water/ water Land/ land Different contexts for hearing and recall Same contexts for hearing and recall Retrieval: Context Effects • Godden and Baddeley (1975)

27. Why Do We Forget? • The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is the on the back of a $10 bill? $5 bill? $1 bill? • Whose faces are on Mt. Rushmore? • What letters accompany the number 4 on a phone? • What is the Statue of Liberty holding in her left hand? • How many sides are there on a #2 pencil?

28. Forgetting: Encoding Failure

29. Ebbinghaus • Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables • TUV ZOF GEK WAV • the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 • If not rehearsed, forgetting occurs rapidly, but then levels off

30. Attention External events Sensory memory Short- term memory Long- term memory Encoding Encoding Encoding failure leads to forgetting Forgetting: Encoding Failure • Info never gets to LTM

31. Percentage of list retained when relearning 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time in days since learning list Forgetting: Storage Decay • Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

32. 100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Percentage of original vocabulary retained Retention drops, then levels off 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course Forgetting: Storage Decay • The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school

33. Attention Encoding External events Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Encoding Retrieval Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Forgetting: Retrieval Failure • Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory

34. Forgetting: Interference • Proactive (forward-acting) interference  old info disrupts memory of new info • Retroactive (backward-acting) interference  new info disrupts memory of old info

35. Forgetting- Interference • Motivated Forgetting (retrieval failure) • people unknowingly revise memories • Repression • defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

36. Amnesia:Disruption of explicit memories • Infantile amnesia: difficult to remember vivid memories from before ages 2-3 • Dissociative amnesia: inability to remember info due to psychological trauma

38. Memory Construction • Elizabeth Loftus • We filter information and fill in missing pieces • Misinformation Effect • incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

39. Depiction of actual accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction Memory Construction • Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

41. References Kaplan, H. Memory (PPT file). Retrieved from AP Psychology Commune Web Site: http://www.appsychology.com Myers, D.G. (2011). Myers’ psychology for AP. Holland, MI: Worth Publishers.