1. HYPOTHESIS Moazzam Ali

2. Hypothesis Defined • Term derived from Greek word, hypotithenaimeaning "to put under" or "to suppose" • A hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation by the researcher of what the researcher considers the outcome of an investigation will be • It is an informed/educated guess

3. Hypothesis Defined (contd.) • It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables. • It is the most specific way in which an answer to a problem can be stated • A hypothesis is never to be stated as a question, but always as a statement with an explanation following it.

4. Usage of the Term • In early usage, scholars often referred to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplified cumbersome calculations as a hypothesis- when used this way, the word did not necessarily have any specific meaning • In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation

5. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HYPOTHESIS AND A PROBLEM • A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is derived • A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. A problem cannot be directly tested, whereas a hypothesis can be tested and verified • Both a hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of knowledge which supports or refutes an existing theory

6. When Is A Hypothesis Formulated? • A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been concluded • It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical background to the problem

7. The Purpose & Function of a Hypothesis • It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically tested • It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge • It gives direction to an investigation. • It indicates the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem

8. CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYPOTHESIS • It should have elucidating power • It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the phenomenon • It must be verifiable • It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms • It should correspond with existing knowledge

9. TYPES OF HYPOTHESES • Hypotheses can be classified in terms of their derivation • Inductive Hypothesis • Deductive Hypothesis • Hypotheses can also be classified in terms of their formulation • Research Hypothesis • Statistical or Null Hypothesis

10. TYPES OF HYPOTHESES (contd.) • Inductive Hypothesis • When the researcher arrives at a conclusion based on a set of observations made by the researcher. An hypothesis based on inductive reasoning can lead to a more careful study of a situation • Deductive Hypothesis • When the researcher makes conclusions based on previously known facts. Considered more valid form of reasoning.

11. TYPES OF HYPOTHESES (contd.) • Research Hypothesis • It is a relationship between variables and indicates the nature of the relationship For Example: • If A is valid, B follows • If you hit a child with a cane, he/she will cry • Schools in which pupil-teacher relations are open/friendly will have less unrest than comparable schools where pupil-teacher relations are closed/tense

12. TYPES OF HYPOTHESES (contd.) • Statistical or Null Hypothesis (H0) • A null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis that is tested for possible rejection under the assumption that it is true For Example: • There is no difference between pupil-teacher relations in unrest schools and pupil-teacher relations in comparable schools which experience no unrest

13. Formulating A Research Hypothesis • To formulate a research hypothesis: • We start with a research question and; • generate operational definitions for all variables and; • formulate a research hypothesis keeping in mind expected relationships or differences and operational definitions

14. Hypotheses and Prediction • A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may include a prediction • Hypotheses are understood in terms of the particular independent and dependent variables that the researcher uses in the study

15. How Are Hypotheses Written? • Chocolate may cause pimples • Salt in soil may affect plant growth • Plant growth may be affected by the color of the light • Bacterial growth may be affected by temperature • Ultra violet light may cause skin cancer • Temperature may cause leaves to change color • All of these are examples of hypotheses because they use the tentative word "may” • However, using the word may does not suggest how the researcher would go about proving it. If these statements had not been written carefully, they may not have even been hypotheses at all • For example, if we say "Trees will change color when it gets cold" we are making a prediction • Or if we write, "Ultraviolet light causes skin cancer“, it could be a conclusion

16. Formalized Hypothesis • One way to avoid making a mistake while writing an hypothesis is to formalize the form of the hypothesis • For Example, 1. Ifskin cancer is related to ultraviolet light , then people with a high exposure to uv light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer. 2. If leaf color change is related to temperature , then exposing plants to low temperatures will result in changes in leaf color.

17. Formalized Hypothesis • Notice that the example statements contain the words, if and then. They are necessary in a formalized hypothesis. • But not all if-then statements are hypotheses. • For example, "If I play the lottery, then I will get rich." This is a simple prediction. • In a formalized hypothesis, a tentative relationship is stated. For example, “if the frequency of winning is related to frequency of buying lottery tickets, “THEN” is followed by a prediction of what will happen if you increase or decrease the frequency of buying lottery tickets. • TIP: If you always ask yourself that if one thing is related to another, then you should be able to test it

18. Variables In Formalized Hypothesis • Formalized hypotheses contain two variables. • Independent variable: is the variable that the researcher controls • Dependent variable: is the one that the researcher observes and/or measures the results of • In the example below, the dependent variable is blue and the independent variable is red • Ifskin cancer is related to ultraviolet light , then people with a high exposure to uv light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer

19. THANK YOU