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Memory. Chapter 6. The First Memory Research. Herman Ebbinghaus: In 1800s, his own subject Nonsense Syllables: meaningless word-like syllables (wug, gup, lix) Ebbinghaus: memorized lists to see how long memory lasts Forgetting Curve: memory fades rapidly at first and then levels off
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Memory Chapter 6
The First Memory Research • Herman Ebbinghaus: In 1800s, his own subject • Nonsense Syllables: meaningless word-like syllables (wug, gup, lix) • Ebbinghaus: memorized lists to see how long memory lasts • Forgetting Curve: memory fades rapidly at first and then levels off • Overlearning: even if we know something, additional study strengthens our memory of it
Information-Processing Model A “computer-like model” describing how humans encode, store, and retrieve information. • encoding: getting information into memory • type on keyboard = seeing or hearing • storage: keeping information in memory • save to disk = committing to memory • retrieval: getting information out of memory • open a file = bringing into consciousness
The 3 Basic Stages of Memory • 1. Sensory Register (store): receives information thought the senses • 2. Short Term Memory (STM): also called “working memory” what we are thinking about at the moment • 3. Long Term Memory (LTM): stored information
The Sensory Registers • Sensory Registers: entry points for data from the senses, (mainly visual/auditory) • Icon: image in visual sensory store, lasts less than a second (e.g., after you close your eyes) • Echo: sound in auditory sensory store, lasts several seconds (e.g., hearing a sentence) • Attention: determines what sensory information will be transferred to STM
Capacity of Visual Sensory Store • Investigated by George Sperling using his “Partial Report Procedure” • The “icon” holds a tremendous amount of information • However, only a small amount can be “attended to” and retained • The rest fades away in a fraction of a second
How Attention Works • Donald Broadbent: investigated attention in the auditory sensory store • A different story was played to each ear over headphones. People could only really follow one. • Broadbent’s Filter Theory: Broadbent concluded attention is like a “switch” that we turn on or off
The Cocktail Party Phenomenon • You are at a party where people are talking in small groups. • From across the room you hear your name mentioned and immediately your “attention” shifts to that converstation • According to Broadbent’s Filter Theory, this should not happen
Attenuation Theory • Anne Treissman suggests that attention is NOT like a switch • We turn the volume up or down on various channels to meet our needs • In reality, there are many channels, not just two • What we attend to (whether visual or auditory) is passed along to “Short Term Memory” (STM)
Capacity of STM • 7 “bits” + or - 2 (as much information as can be repeated in 1.5 to 2 seconds) • a phone number is a good example. • Chunking: grouping information into meaningful units can increase the amount of information held in STM.
Try to Memorize This T R Q E N L P T Q O I N A N
Try Memorizing This J F K L H O L B J C I A F B I
Encoding in STM • We encode information in STM based on its sound (phonologically) not its meaning • In STM recall tasks, people have a harder time correctly recalling the word group “mad, man, map, cap” (sound similar) than the word group “pit, day, cow, bar” (don’t sound similar)
Maintaining STM • rote rehearsal: Most information is held in STM by simply repeating it over and over • Like looking up a phone number and repeating it until you dial it • Some information may get to Long Term Memory by rote rehearsal but it is not a very efficient way of doing it
Encoding in LTM • We saw that in STM information is encoded mainly based on how it sounds • In LTM, information is stored based on its “MEANING” and can be stored as a visual image, a sound, a smell, etc.
The Serial Position Effect • When learning a list of names our recall is poorest for those in the middle of the list (as opposed to those at the beginning or end of the list) • Primacy effect: recall is good for words early in the list because they had more of a chance to be “rehearsed” • Recency effect: recall is good for words at the end of the list because they may still be in STM
Maintaining Long Term Memory • rote rehearsal: To holdinformation in STM, we simply repeat it over and over BUT for LTM this is not very effective (ex. Learn the musical staff) • 1st space is F, 2nd space is A (with enough work, this will be stored in LTM, but this is not very efficient) • elaborative rehearsal: is the“Meaningful” linking of new information to information already in long-term memory • FACE is a trick for remembering the spaces on the musical “staff” (much more efficient).
Schemata (plural of schema) • A “schema” is a framework that we incorporate new memories into • We might have schemas for driving, attending class, etc. • Imagine having to think about each step needed to drive your car each time you got in • Schemas help us process daily experience
Priming • Sometimes related information can “prime” or “cue” us to remember • You are taking a test and skipped question 10 because you didn’t know it • After reading question 31 you suddenly know the answer to question 10 • Some word in question 31 “primed” your memory for the topic of question 10
The Biology of Memory • Memory Formation: a new memory is formed when new synaptic connections are made (new dendrites and axons are formed an connected) • Epinephrine and Cortisol: are two hormones that stimulate the brain to form new memories • Acetylcholine: a neurotransmitter, also plays an important role in memory formation • Hippocampus and Amygdala: are two brain areas important in new memory formation
Where are Memories Stored? • Carl Lashley in the 1950s removed parts of rats brains in a search for memory. He could not identify any specific areas. • Frontal and Temporal Lobes: we now know that much of our “Semantic” and “Episodic” memory is stored in these areas
Where are Memories Stored? (cont.) • Cerebellum: much of our “Procedural” memory is stored here. Recall, this area is involved in coordination and movement • Amygdala: is important in formation and storage of our “Emotional” memory
Forgetting Loss of information from LTM
Retrograde Amnesia • Brain trauma (e.g., being knocked out) interrupts the transfer of information from Short Term to Long Term memory. • Information in STM just prior to the trauma never gets to LTM and is permanently lost • This is “biological” and differs from “psychogenic amnesia”(i.e., repressed memories which are there but can’t be recalled)
Interference in Long Term Memory • Retroactive interference: Newly learned information interferes with the retrieval of old (previously learned) information. • Proactive interference: Old (previously learned) information interferes with the retrieval of newly learned information.
Situational Factors • The situation or context in which you remember and try to recall can make a difference • You regularly meet for Englidh class in classroom A (old, dark, and musty) but your exam is in classroom B (brand new, bright, and clean) • You may do more poorly on your test in classroom B because the “situational cues” your brain has associated with the information are not present!
State Dependent Memory • Your physiological state may get stored along with your memories as you study (for example) • Suppose you eat candy or drink coffee as you study to “pick you up” • You may recall better on a test if you eat the same candy or drink coffee
Memory is “Reconstructive” • memory is NOT like a snapshot • we actually remember “parts” of events and “fill in the blanks” as we recall them • we may (unconsciously) change and distort memories as we recall them • many “repressed traumatic memories” recalled in therapy never really happened!
Special Topics in Memory • eidetic imagery: ability to reproduce unusually sharp and detailed mental images of something one has seen “photographic memory” • mnemonics: “tricks or techniques” that help you remember (e.g., to learn the musical staff, “face” and “every good by does fine”) • Flashbulb Memory: “vivid” memory for a highly emotional or important situation
Eyewitness Testimony • Elizabeth Loftus: demontrated that testimony can be easily distorted • Two groups saw a film of an auto accident • Group A was asked “How fast were the cars going when they hit?” • Group B was asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed?” • Group B gave higher speed estimates!
Improving Your Memory • practice memory skills • use elaborative vs. rote rehearsal • make connections between new and old information • use mental imagery • use mneumonics and retrieval cues
