Argument

1. Argument Lesson 1: Everything’s an Argument

2. In your Journal: Respond to this prompt as your next journal entry: Arguments are all around us! Write about the most recent argument that you witnessed or in which you took part. What was the claim? What was the argument being made? Why?

3. Argument in our society: Visual, written, & verbal messages all contain argument. The clothes you choose to wear, the food you choose to eat, and the groups you decide to join----and many other every day activities all make nuanced arguments about who you are and what you value.

4. Argument can be in any text that expresses a point of view. Sometimes arguments can be aggressive and focused on changing a person’s point of view, but sometimes they can be more subtle and have a focus of convincing yourself or presenting information to others so they may see that there are numerous points of view that are viable and should be considered.

5. Consider the following: • A nurse assures a youngster eyeing the approaching needle, “This won’t hurt a bit.” • A sports columnist blasts a football coach for passing on a fourth down and two in a close game---even though the play results in a touchdown. • “Please let me make it through this chemistry exam!” a student silently prays. How are each of these statements arguments?

6. What argument is each making?How are the arguments different?Analyze how you know this.

7. What argument, or claim, that each ad is making to consumers? Explain your responses by using text based examples. How do you know what the ad is asking you to do? What parts of the images help to form the claim of the argument? Who or what is making the claim? Why is it important?

8. Purpose for Argument

9. In some ways, all language has an argumentative element that aims to make a point, but not all language use aims to win out or convince others to take action. Sometimes an argument just aims to invite others to enter a space of mutual regard and exploration of an idea. As you will see, arguments serve numerous purposes, just as language serves numerous purposes.

10. We have arguments to: inform to convince to explore to make decisions and even to meditate and/or pray. • And, of course, there is the well-known argument to WIN.

11. Why ARGUE? • The point of argument is not necessarily to push others to take a particular action, but it is to bring people to discover some version of the truth, using evidence and reasons. • Argument leads an audience to a conviction, and agreement that a claim is reasonable or true, and that there is a course of action that is desirable. • The aim of persuasion is to move the audience from acknowledgement of the conviction to action.

12. In other words, writers and speakers argue to discover the truth, and then they use persuasion when they have committed to knowing that truth in order to move others to a desired path of belief or action. • Argument (discover a truth) -------- conviction • Persuasion (know a truth) ---------- action

13. In order to persuade, the argument must have already been formed.

14. Respond to one 1. Write about a time you used language to inform someone of something. 2. Write about a time you used language to convince someone to do or believe something. 3. Write about a time you used language to explore a new idea. 4. Write about a time you used language to meditate or pray about something. 5. Write about a time you used language to help you make a decision in your life.

15. Occasions for Argument

16. In your journal, respond to the following: • “What criteria, or reasons, do you use to help you make decisions? Do you consider what has happened in the past? Do you think about how that decision will affect your future plans? Do you consider what is good or bad about the decision for the present? Write about a time you had to make an important decision, and how you came to that decision.”

17. Occassions for Argument • Arguments about the Past (forensic arguments), • Arguments about the Future (deliberative arguments) • Arguments about the Present (epideictic or ceremonial arguments).

18. It is imperative that students, and people in general, evaluate the purpose for their argument and consider which occasion is most appropriate for their purpose in order to achieve their goals through language.

19. Forensic Arguments • Debates about what happened in the past. • These arguments are common among business, government, and academia. • For example, in many criminal court cases, lawyers interrogate witnesses to establish exactly what happened at an earlier time. • Forensic arguments rely on evidence and testimony to re-create what can be known about events that have already happened.

20. Forensic arguments also rely heavily on precedents, or actions and decisions in the past that influence policies or decisions in the present. Forensic arguments may also be arguments about character, such as when someone’s reputation is studied in historical context to enrich or change our perspectives on that person today.

21. Allusions to the past can make present arguments more vivid. • This type of argument is often used to open the conversation, to enhance and sharpen knowledge, but necessarily to generate heat or score points. • In other words, it is the argument that can build to the point of persuasion.

22. Deliberative Arguments • Debates about the future. • Legislatures, congresses, and parliaments are called deliberative bodies because they establish policies for the future. • Deliberative arguments often depend on forensic arguments, because what is to be the future often depends on what has happened in the past.

23. For example, deliberative arguments often draw on evidence and testimony (If X is true, then Y may be true; if X happens, so may Y; if X continues, then Y may occur), but it takes the argument a step further by making reasoned guess, extrapolations, and projections based on the past evidence. For example, because the cost of gasoline is such a hot topic right now, it is a good one to consider and deliberate.

24. The past tells us that when there is a hurricane or tropical storm that threatens off-shore oil production the cost of gasoline rises for the consumer; therefore, if there is a hurricane that is expected to come ashore in three days it is fair to say that it could be smart to fill our gas tanks in the next couple of days to avoid the price increase at the pump. • If I were a small business owner or manager of a small business that requires gasoline for my trucks, I may consider adopting a policy that drivers fill their vehicles with gas in the next two days.

25. Epiceictic/Ceremonial Arguments • Debates about the present. • Most arguments about the present deal with contemporary values, or the ethical premises and assumptions that are widely held or contested within a society. • These arguments tend to be heard at public gatherings because they are current and require immediate attention.

26. Ceremonial arguments are often heard at inaugural addresses, church sermons, graduation speeches, civic gatherings, and eulogies. They are often passionate and eloquent, rich in anecdotes, descriptions, and examples. They often call on the abstract definitions we all of have of what is good and what is bad.

27. Read the editorials Analyze the arguments using the following questions: • Who is arguing? • What purpose is the author trying to achieve? • To whom are they directing their argument? Decide, as a class, which editorial is forensic, deliberative, and ceremonial.

28. Kinds of Arguments The kinds of issues each argument addresses

29. Kinds of Arguments The categorization system is called stasis theory. In ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, rhetoricians designed a series of questions for evaluating legal cases. The questions would be posed in sequence, because each question depended on the one that came before it.

30. Together, the questions helped to determine exactly what the point of contention was; therefore, determining where disputants could focus their energy and what kind of argument they should make. • Today these questions may look a little like this: • Did something happen? • What is the nature of the incident? • What is the quality of the incident? • What actions should be taken now? These ?s lead to different kinds of arguments.

31. Argument of Fact • “Did something happen?” • An argument of fact usually involves a statement that can be proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony. • Sometimes these arguments seem relatively straight-forward, and easy; however, arguments of fact are sometimes subtle, and have many more layers than the original question.

32. For example, let’s think about the issue of global warming. Is global warming threatening our life on earth? • This would seem a simple question, but if we were going to take this argument to its full extent we would need to consider several layers of questions that accompany the simple one.

33. First of all, we would have to define global warming. You cannot assume that everyone believes that global warming is in fact occurring at all. Then we would need to think about to what degree global warming threatens life at all.

34. If it is real, is there a chance that it could harm anything, much less human life? How do we measure global warming? How do we know what degree of global warming can ultimately change human life? There are many more questions that can follow.

35. Argument of Definition Asking, “What is the nature of the incident?” An argument of definition often involves determining in which category an object or action belongs.

36. For example, consider the age old debate surrounding tomatoes. Is a tomato a fruit or a vegetable? In order to form an argument for either side, we much agree on some definitions of what a fruit is and what a vegetable is. Then we would examine the qualities of a tomato and decide, based on how it meets the criteria for one or both of these categories, whether a tomato is a fruit or a vegetable. This is a simple argument of definition.

37. Sometimes arguments of definition can be much more serious, and can carry mighty consequences. • For example, the question of is a human fetus a human being? • If one argues that it is, then we have another question of definition: Is abortion murder?

38. Argument of Evaluation • If you are asking the question “What is the quality of the incident?” • An argument of evaluation is so common that writers sometimes take them for granted. • Arguments of evaluation are often complex and important in establishing people’s values and priorities.

39. For example, when we make plans to vote for a candidate in a democratic election we consider certain criteria for what makes a “good leader”. We cast our vote (hopefully) based on who we believe will measure up to the criteria we have established for a good leader. We often do the same thing when we choose books, choose films, and choose music.

40. We have a set of criteria in our heads which we have learned or established over time that makes us consider the quality of a thing before we choose it. None of us want to buy “bad” food, or a subpar new car. We want the best we can get based on what we have determined to be the best.

41. Proposal Arguments • “What actions should be taken?” • In arguments that propose action, writers first have to succeed in presenting a problem in a way that the readers ask “what can we do?” • A proposal argument often begins with the presentation of research and evidence to document the existence of a problem.

42. Once the problem has been established, and everyone is in agreement that something must be done, the writer may offer viable and appropriate alternatives and to recommend one preferable course of action. Sometimes the need is so obvious, that a writer can spend the majority of his/her time defending a solution to the problem at hand. Quite often, an argument that proposes action leads to persuasion on the part of the writer.

43. An example of an argument to propose action is fairly easy to spot in American society. We tend think of the world in terms of problems and solutions. For example, consider the recent Wall Street downfall. Due to failing banks and failing economy the Congress considered a proposed “bailout” package for several failing banks.

44. The president proposed one course of action to the Congress. • They did not agree that was an appropriate course of action at the time, so they set out to propose another course of action that was more pleasing to the Congress and the American people. • Proposal argument at work!!!

45. Considering What’s Normal Why would it be important to consider opinions, customs, or ideas that are different than your own when forming an argument?

46. Examples of Kinds of Argument • A Time to Kill http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ic1UqNMl1l0 • A Few Good Men http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hGvQtumNAY • Erin Brockovich http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BGX4nMrnxg0 • A Civil Action http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fHRXGQhpib8

47. Considering What’s Normal • If you want to communicate effectively with people across cultures, then you need to try to learn something about the norms of those cultures, and be aware of the norms that guide your own thinking and behavior. Sometimes, the things that you think are very normal and “right” are completely the opposite in another place.

48. How does your family handle one of the following situations: • Curfews for teenagers. Do you have a curfew? What time is it? Why is it set at that hour? If you do not have a curfew, why? • Birthdays. How does your family celebrate birthdays? Do you all have a big celebration? What does that consist of? Is it a more private celebration? Do you celebrate at all? Are there any traditions at certain ages for your family? • Dinner. Does your family sit down to dinner together each night? Is it a fend-for-yourself kind of attitude in your house? Are there certain nights or occasions when everyone is expected to be home for dinner? • Pets. Do you have family pets? What is the nature of the relationships that your family has with pets? Are your pets a part of the family? Do the pets stay outside? Does the whole family take part in the care of the pets, or do those responsibilities belong to one family member?