ARGUMENT

1. ARGUMENT Argument Essays & Terms

2. ARGUMENT IN ACADEMIC WRITING •  An argument in academic writing is presenting a controversial issue fairly by providing support for both sides of the debate while taking a stance by making your major point clear and supporting it with evidence. • Fair presentation means addressing the opposition by answering their strongest arguments. • Support for an argument paper means quotations from evaluated sources for your claim and for the major claims of the opposition.

3. AUDIENCE • Your audience is your opposition – find their strongest claims • Find reasons and quotations to refute the opponents claims • Rhetorical context – you’re joining the conversation on the subject that had already been going on before you joined it.

4. APPEALS • Appeal to logos– argumentative appeals to logic and reason (facts, statistics, logical reasoning) • Appeal to ethos - argumentative appeals to values and credibility (trustworthiness of the speaker) • Appeal to pathos - argumentative appeals to emotions

5. APPEAL TO LOGIC • Use denotative meanings/reasons • Provide literal and historical analogies • Provide definitions • Provide factual data and statistics • Provide quotations • Provide citations from experts and authorities • Provide informed opinions

6. APPEAL TO ETHOS • Use language appropriate to audience and subject • Provide restrained, sincere, fair-minded presentation • Use appropriate level of vocabulary and correct grammar

7. APPEAL TO PATHOS • Use vivid, concrete, emotionally loaded language • Use connotative meanings • Provide emotional examples, vivid descriptions, narratives of emotional events • Use emotional tone and figurative language

8. PREMISE Premise is a proposition antecedently supposed or proved as a basis of argument or inference ; premise is also called a reason, which is a claim to support another claim. • Either of the first two propositions of a syllogism from which the conclusion is drawn • Something assumed or taken for granted

9. PREMISE - Continued • Claim: Women should be barred from joining military combat units. • Premise 1: • Women don’t have strength or endurance • Premise 2: • Women will hurt unit morale by introducing sexual jealousies • Premise 3 • Women would be less reliable to a combat unit if they become pregnant

10. Syllogism While inductive reasoning moves from a set of specific examples to a general statement, deductive reasoning moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion. It works on the model of syllogism, a simple three-part argument that consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion:  All human beings are mortal. Socrates is a human being. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

11. Rogerian Argument Rogerian argument- named after psychologist Carl Rogers – s a kind of negotiated argument where understanding and compromise replace the traditional, adversarial approach. Rogerian, or nonthreatening, argument opens the lines of communication by reducing conflict. Crucial to Rogerian argument is the fact that convictions and beliefs are not abstract but reside in people.

12. Rogerian Argument (Continued) It appeals to character and uses reason and logic, while its primary goal is not to “win” the argument, but to establish common ground and to reach a solution. Mutual communication allows both sides become more flexible and find a compromise or solution that would satisfy both sides.

13. MODES OF DEVELOPMENT Choose one strategy if it serves your purpose Combine several strategies (comparison/contrast, cause/effect, definition, etc.)

14. ORGANIZATION • You can present all the arguments of the opposition in the first half of the paper and refute them by providing your arguments in the second half • You can identify several arguments of the opposition and refute each of them throughout your essay (point-by-point)

15. SUPPORT • Relevant: Evidence which clearly relates to the claim • Reliable: evidence drawn from authoritative sources (facts and experts’ opinion) • Sufficient: evidence that is ample to establish the validity or reasonableness of a claim • Remember your audience and the claim

16. INTRODUCTION • Briefly present both sides of the argument • Provide background for your topic • Finish with your claim/thesis

17. CONCLUSION • Restate your main arguments • Explain your purpose: • Why the reader should accept your point of view? • What will happen if your reader doesn’t follow your suggestions (any effects?)? • Do you have any suggestions/solutions for the problem?