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Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great. What he was like. Alexander III was 20 years old in 336. There are Roman copies of art perhaps originally executed during his lifetime. He appears clean-shaven and young. They may be true likenesses, or idealized based on extant descriptions of Achilles.

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Alexander the Great

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  1. Alexander the Great

  2. What he was like • Alexander III was 20 years old in 336. • There are Roman copies of art perhaps originally executed during his lifetime. He appears clean-shaven and young. • They may be true likenesses, or idealized based on extant descriptions of Achilles. • The real Alexander had thick blond hair, eyes of differing colors, sharp pointed teeth, and a shrill voice. • He was already a veteran of war as a cavalry officer and experienced in administration having overseen Macedon when Philip was away. • Aristotle’s pupil, he was also keenly aware of the dangerous intrigues that could threaten his position.

  3. Alexander’s Empire

  4. The first year • Alexander ended the Illyrian threat once and for all and crushed rebellions in Thrace and Thessaly. • The Persians had financed all of these anti-Macedonian operations, and Alexander’s treasury was running low. Philip had died in debt. • He then turned his attention to Greece where Athens and Thebes, among others, were controlled by anti-Macedonian factions. • When Thebes rebelled, he moved quickly against the city. • He killed 6,000 male inhabitants and sold 30,000 into slavery. • He leveled the city except for the temples and the home of the poet Pindar. • The message was clear: Don’t mess with Alexander.

  5. Sidebar: Alexander and Diogenes • Before his Persian campaign, Alexander visited the famed philosopher Diogenes, founder of the Cynic school, at Corinth. • Diogenes, not a permanent resident, was living in a wooden tub—a trash can. • As Alexander walked by, he saw Diogenes, and asked if there was anything he could do for him. • Diogenes replied, “Yes, move out of the way; you are in my light.” • The fictional reply was added later by one of Diogenes’ followers: “If I had not been Alexander, I would like to have been Diogenes,” said Alexander.

  6. Problem of an heir • Alexander was now poised to execute a war of vengeance on the Persians, but some felt there were lingering problems at home. • The old aristocrats who advised his father counseled him to strengthen his home position, and to place a priority on marrying a Macedonian and producing an heir. • Alexander felt pressure to marry an aristocrat’s daughter, but doing so would slight other aristocrats and create a rebellious climate while he was off fighting the Persians. • In the end, his inability to produce an heir would rip apart the empire he would carve out.

  7. The Persian campaign begins • 334 Alexander crosses into Persian territory in Asia Minor with 37,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. • In northwest Asia Minor, at the Granicus River this army faced a Persian army of 30,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry. • Local satraps had to gather armies to fight him, and relied on seasoned Greek mercenaries. • The Persian forces wisely stationed themselves on the eastern shore of the river on a steep bank that rose above the fast-flowing stream. • Alexander made the initial part of his attack at night.

  8. Generalship defined his reign • Alexander is known for his military campaigns rather than his administrative skills. • His career is defined by a series of battles as he fought across Asia: • Granicus 334 • Issus 333 • Siege of Tyre 332 • Siege of Gaza 332 • Gaugamela 331 • Susian Gates 330 • Jhelum River 327

  9. The Battle of Granicus • This was Alexander’s first major engagement with the hated Persians. • At night he marched his infantry downstream and crossed the river. • He had most of them across before the Persians sounded the alarm. • The Macedonians were confident of victory and had the more experienced soldiers, but it almost involved a disaster…

  10. Close calls from the beginning • Alexander, at the head of his companion cavalry was easily spotted by all on the field of battle because of the prominent white plumes of his helmet. • Early in the battle a thrown javelin pierced his magnificent armor at the breastplate. • A Persian also hit him in the head with an axe that laid open his scalp. • Another Persian almost dealt him a certain death blow, but Alexander was incredibly saved when his close companion Cleitus severed the arm of the attacker. • He may have shown indiscretion he later avoided. Ancient sources are divided as to whether Alexander actually took the advice of his veteran officers, who advised that he not immediately attack the Persian force.

  11. Outcome of Granicus • The Persian cavalry was nearly the match of the Macedonians, but their infantry was inferior: they ran away in the heat of battle. • Ancient sources reported Persian losses at 2500; the Macedonians lost only 150. • Alexander punished most of the Greek mercenaries who fought for the Persians with death. 18,000 were put to death; 2000 were sold as slaves. • This early victory was significant for opening all Asia Minor to the Macedonians, but his navy was virtually non-existent and the Persian navy still dominated the Western seas. • He would have to devise a plan to neutralize the Persian navy in the Mediterranean. He would do it in a series of three battles.

  12. Questions: • How were the Greek mercenaries killed? The ancient sources contradict one another. Arrian says they were surprised and surrounded. Cavalry kept them in check while the phalanx mowed them down. Plutarch says he refused their surrender then charged with cavalry. • How many “companions”? These were nobles who were Alexander’s most trusted advisors. There were never more than a hundred and 25 died at Granicus. • How did the Persians execute their prisoners? Any way they could. The Persians, like Alexander, were known to use crucifixion. Darius I of Persia is the earliest recorded user of the method. In 519 he crucified 3000 political prisoners. • How were Persian soldiers armed? In the Persian Wars the Persian forces relied on “regional” weaponry. When they invaded Greece, few wore helmets, almost none had swords, and their shields were wicker or woven reeds and leather. By Alexander’s time those who could afford it adopted Greek weaponry but could not master the phalanx. They relied on “missile” including arrows and spears, and cavalry with spears or perhaps swords later.

  13. Sidebar: The Gordian Knot • Gordium was a city of Asia Minor, on the Persian Royal Road. • There was old King Midas’ chariot in the palace of the former kings of Phrygia. • The chariot was linked to its yoke by a knot made of cornel-bark that no one had ever been able to undo. • Alexander wanted to use the chariot for his procession, but had to undo the knot. • After several tries, Alexander lost patience and cut the know with his sword. • Alexander’s historian, Callisthenes, said that the one who undid the knot was destined to rule Asia. He apparently created the myth, which has no documented antecedent.

  14. Battle of Issus, 333 • Alexander faced the new king of Persia, Darius III at Issus between Asia Minor and Syria. • He drew the vast Persian force into a narrow plain between the sea and hill country. The Persians probably saw an opportunity to cut his supply line. • The Persians were unable to outflank the Macedonians because of geography, but Alexander outflanked them, and caused them to flee. • Darius III fled so quickly that he left behind great treasure, and his mother, wife, and children! • Sources report the Persians lost a vast number of soldiers, between 50 and 100 thousand.

  15. Tyre and Gaza • Most Phoenician ports, except Tyre fell easily. • The great city of Tyre was situated on a fortified island with 150 foot high walls. • Alexander persevered for seven months until the city fell in 332. He now controlled the Persian navy. • To terrorize the region, he killed 9000 captured Tyrians, 2000 of them by crucifixion. • He sold the rest, about 30,000, into slavery. • Next he captured Gaza and had 10,000 men slaughtered after a three-month siege. This was a source of great wealth to Alexander. • In imitation of what Achilles did to Hector, Alexander killed the Gazan commander Belios and dragged his corpse around the city walls. • Now the way to Egypt was open, and its administration surrendered without a fight.

  16. Egypt • The Egyptians declared Alexander to be a pharaoh, the son of the god Osiris, god of the dead. • Alexander took time to make a dangerous to the Siwah oasis to consult the oracle of Zeus-Ammon. The Greeks equated Ammon with Zeus and supposedly Heracles and others had consulted this oracle. Was he guided there by two serpents acc. to Ptolemy? • Alexander may have been obsessing about his own divine associations and so sought some confirmation. He also may have wanted confirmation that Philip’s murder had been properly avenged. • No one knows for certain what the priests of the oracle told him, but he began to claim increasingly to be the son of Zeus-Amen. • This claim was a shock to the Macedonians, who did not worship humans as gods. • In Egypt, Alexander laid plans for a new Greek polis. Like other cities he founded later, it was called Alexandria, but Egyptian Alexandria was the greatest of the poleis he founded.

  17. Showdown with Darius III • Alexander and his army marched over 1000 miles northeast from Egypt, looking for a fight. • Darius attempted to “buy off” Alexander by offering him control of the entire Persian empire west of the Euphrates River, 30K talents (Arrian: 10K for his wife back), his daughter’s hand in marriage and his son as a hostage to guarantee the deal. • A talent is about 75 pounds of gold, in 2005 worth about half a million dollars. A talent was 6000 drachmas in Greece, about $83. • Alexander refused and chose to face a Persian force of 150,000, over three times his number at a place called Gaugamela, near the Tigris River 50 miles east of the present Mosul, Iraq. • He replied he would settle for nothing less than all of Asia and if he wished to marry his daughter, he would do so without Darius’ permission.

  18. Gaugamela • Parmenio, a trusted strategist of Alexander’s whom he inherited from his father suggested a night attack due to the superior numbers of Persians. • Alexander rejected his advice, but leaked plans for a night attack to the Persians, who were kept awake till morning. • The battle that took place the next day was one of the most studied in history, and won many imitators as the Macedonians killed 100 Persians for every one they lost. • September 30, 331 led his army forward into the battle. Alexander led cavalry and infantry on the right wing, Parmenio on the left.

  19. A quick and bloody battle • By feigning weakness on Parmenio’s wing, Alexander suckered the Persians, who lost all sense of discipline and plundered the Macedonian camp…too soon. • Alexander waited patiently with his cavalry for a gap in the Persian line, then attacked. Within a few minutes the whole tide of the battle went to Alexander. • Macedonians smashed through the Persian center and the Persian left, facing Alexander’s wing retreated to avoid encirclement. • Darius fled the field, as did the Persian infantry, 100,000 strong. 40,000 Persians and Persian-Greek mercenaries died. • Alexander encircled the Persian right and used the phalanx to wipe them out, battle won. But Darius had escaped again.

  20. The pursuit of Darius • Alexander with 500 cavalry pursued the fleeing Darius, covering 400 miles in 11 days. • Darius was attempting to reach reinforcements as he escaped to the north with 30,000 infantry. • Persian general Bessus, Darius’ cousin, aided by Nabarzanes, stabbed Darius with the intent of renewing the war against Macedon. • Alexander discovered the dead body of Darius, covered it in a cloak and sent it to Persepolis for burial. • In a turn of events, Alexander would then pursue the assassins of Darius as regicides.

  21. Alexander after Darius’ death • 330, Alexander defeats 25,000 Persians at the Battle of the Susian Gates, the pass that protected Persepolis. • Alexander burned Persepolis, perceived as the most powerful city of the empire. • After this, Alexander began a policy of allowing some Persians into the Companion cavalry and began dressing as a Persian king. • In the view of Persians, Alexander wore a white robe and sash with a blue and white diadem. • This behavior neither reconciled Persians to his rule, and at the same time began to antagonize the Macedonians who had been loyal to him from the beginning.

  22. The prostration controversy • In 330 Alexander began to suggest that his officers prostrate themselves before him in the same way the Persian courtesans did. • The Macedonians were not accustomed to this, and had always associated the practice with the slave status of Persian subjects. • Alexander severely punished any Macedonian who grumbled or laughed about the practice, which was driving a further wedge between him and the loyal troops who got him to this place. • Alexander would continue to attempt to meld the various elements and cultures of his empire into one loyal populace, with devastating results for Macedonians.

  23. Quiz - Plutarch • What was the name of Alexander’s favorite horse? A. Onesimus B. Hippodorus C. Bucephalus D. Thessaly • When Alexander besieged Tyre he dreamt that who was standing on the city walls calling to him? A. Circe B. Athena C. Heracles D. Parmenio • What friend did Alexander kill in a drunken rage? A. Ptolemy B. Seleucis C. Clitus D. Aeneus • How did Alexander respond to the gymnosophists? A. crucified some of them B. laughed at them C. gave them presents D. had their tongues cut out • Why did Alexander fall in love with Roxana? A. She refuted gymnosophists B. He liked her dancing C. She had hair down to her ankles D. Her fragrance was exhilarating

  24. Parthia and paranoia • Alexander now subdued Parthia, or eastern Iran, in three years of slow, fierce, mountain “guerilla” fighting. • Alexander’s illusions of deity and Persianization seemed to make him increasingly paranoid. Grumblings of his men were taken for treason. • He had the great Parmenio stabbed and decapitated, Parmenio’s son Philotas tortured and stoned for treason, and Cleitus impaled for speaking his mind. • Despite the widespread dissatisfaction of the Macedonians who felt the original objective was being lost, Alexander decided to push on in conquest of the entire known world to the great east Ocean.

  25. To India • Alexander pasted the Punjab potentate Poros and his Pachyderm posse…in 326 at the Jhelum River. • …but not before the elephants frightened the Macedonian cavalry, which had to surround the elephants, shoot the drivers full of arrows, and pierce the elephants’ feet with javelins and axes. • Alexander’s army eventually killed 20,000 of Poros’ soldiers. But the dignified Poros was spared and became a valuable ally. • Alexander had now pushed beyond the Indus River, but his men refused to venture further into the Indian subcontinent. • Alexander was furious, but agreed to return to the west after getting to the mouth of the Indus and meeting his fleet in the Arabian Sea.

  26. Back to Susa • Alexander displayed continued mental imbalance and cruelty in the voyage to the mouth of the Indus. It is estimated he slaughtered 80,000 people in the southern Punjab regions. • Alexander had a fleet awaiting him in the Arabian Sea and sailed his army into the Persian Gulf and marched north to Susa. • Alexander suffered the greatest losses of his campaign to the elements on the march to Susa. • They experienced sandstorms, a devastating flash flood, thirst, and poisonous plants and snakes.

  27. Dissension deepens • The suffering in the desert only increased the homesickness of the survivors. • In 324 Alexander forced 92 of his top officers to take Persian brides in a single Persian-style ceremony. • Alexander took Stateira, Darius’ daughter as his wife, true to his previous word. • He recruited 30,000 Persian youths and gave them in Macedonian-style military training. He wanted to create a Persian-Macedonian administrative class to preserve his empire. • These events frustrated Alexander’s army, which finally mutinied at Opis on the Tigris in 324. • Alexander decided to send some Macedonians home and replace them with Persians, which made matters worse. After an emotional plea, they reconciled.

  28. Death of Alexander • Alexander was wounded in many of the battles he fought. • One of the last wounds he received in India healed slowly and was aggravated by his increasing drinking (in the unmixed Macedonian style). • In 323 he contracted a “fever” brought on by the wound and drunkenness. • Some believe that Antipater, the Macedonian governor, arranged to have him poisoned by strychnine when Alexander summoned him to Babylon for accountability and perhaps execution. • Alexander died at Babylon at the age of 32. Unfinished were his plans to invade Arabia and explore the Caspian Sea.

  29. Alexander’s Legacy: Part One • Disseminator of Greek Culture. • Assimilator of Eastern absolutism. • Innovator of new military tactics and experimentation.

  30. Alexander imbibed Greek culture • The conquests brought Greek culture to a wider world, and Greek science was present on the campaign itself—geographers and biologists. • Alexander loved Greek culture as a teen and treasured Aristotle’s annotated version of the Iliad, supposedly keeping it under his pillow—next to a dagger. • Alexander obviously saw himself as Achilles, even laying a wreath on the traditional tomb of Achilles at Troy. • He longed for a poet to compose an epic of his own exploits, and he founded 35 cities as a legacy…

  31. Alexandria, largest Greek polis • Alexander founded cities for strategic reasons, but also anticipated a cultural flowering. • Alexander commissioned Deinocrates to plan a city on the site of a fishing village at the northwestern tip of the Nile delta. • He built 100 foot wide boulevards, gardens, parks, and fountains with an “urban village” approach with shops and residences interspersed. • The city had not one, but two superb harbors and became a world-leading banking, commercial, and educational center. • Papyrus, linens, and glass were among the major manufactured goods. • At half a million population by 200 B.C. it was the largest Greek city in the world.

  32. Mad about Alexandria • The Ptolemies who followed Alexander proved to be relatively wise and resourceful. • Alexandria was a center of Koine, a simplified form of Attic Greek that became the ancient world’s lingua franca. • Jewish population was welcomed in this “intertestamental” period; there were three synagogues in the city. • 72 Jewish scholars produced an idiomatic Greek translation of the Old Testament called the Septuagint. • Alexandria’s 440-foot high lighthouse was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Its beam could be seen from twenty miles away. • Its library was even more wonderful than the lighthouse. The arid climate was perfect for preserving papyri.

  33. Division of the Empire • On his deathbed, Alexander left his empire to “the strongest.” • His former generals struggled for forty years to control it. • Finally the empire was divided into three parts, each controlled by a former general and his descendants. • Antigonus the One-Eyed, general of supply, ruled Macedon and Greece. • Seleucus, commander of the infantry, ruled the rest of the empire, except for Egypt and (originally) Palestine. • Ptolemy, on Alexander’s general staff, ruled the province of Egypt. • Most of the empire eventually shattered into smaller pieces beginning with India and Parthia.

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